1. Conflicts in the Middle East
Preview
Regional Issues
French North Africa
The Creation of Israel
Changes in Egypt and Iran
The Arab-Israeli Conflict
Revolution in Iran
Conflict in Iraq

2. However, oil has also been a source of conflict.
Regional Issues
Over the last few decades, major conflicts have erupted in the Middle East. Issues that have contributed to the conflicts include the presence of huge oil reserves, the growth of Islamism, and the conflict between Israel and its neighbors.
About two-thirds of world’s known oil reserved located in Middle East
Reserves have been great source of wealth for Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, other countries
Most members of Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
Oil in the Middle East
OPEC attempts to regulate production of oil exports to maximize revenues
Oil revenues allowed Middle East governments to modernize countries, promote industrialization, economic, social development
Oil Revenues
However, oil has also been a source of conflict.

3. Oil as source of conflict in Middle East
Importance of Oil
Oil as source of conflict in Middle East
Some governments have used oil revenues to build up military, maintain power, threaten neighbors
Oil wealth has caused internal clashes within countries, societies
Region’s strategic importance as source of oil has led outside nations to become involved in Middle Eastern affairs, politics

4. Growth of Islamism Islamists Conflicts, Violence
Movement to reorder government, society according to Islamic laws
Islamists believe Muslim countries have strayed from true Islam, followed Western models of political, economic development
Islamists
Egypt, Iran, Iraq have seen growth of Islamism; has led to conflicts within society, government
Some extremists have used violence to bring about changes, have attacked regional governments, their allies, innocent civilians
Conflicts, Violence

5. French North Africa Morocco and Tunisia Independence
After World War II, France faced growing nationalist movements in its North African protectorates of Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria.
Nationalist campaigns for independence began to grow in early, mid-1900s in both countries
Attempts by France to crack down on movements led to increasing unrest, demonstrations, guerrilla wars
Meanwhile Algeria also struggling for independence
Morocco and Tunisia
Algeria home to large French settler population, was more important to the French
French government concluded it could not fight guerrilla wars in Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia at same time
Negotiated with nationalist leaders in Morocco, Tunisia
1956, both countries granted independence
Independence

6. Algeria Algeria National Liberation Front
1830, France first took control of some areas in Algeria
1950s, more than 1 million European settlers in area, owned best land, dominated economy, had grip on political power
National Liberation Front
1954, group of Algerian nationalists formed National Liberation Front (FLN)
FLN began campaign of armed attacks against French targets
French responded with mass arrests, raids on Muslim towns
Attacks on Settlers, Reprisals
Next year FLN directly targeted French settlers; attacks killed more than 100 people in one city
French forces, groups of settlers responded by attacking Muslims; between 1,200 and 12,000 Muslims killed in reprisal attacks

7. French Responses Battle of Algiers Change in Government
Attacks set pattern for deadly war in Algeria—FLN targeted French civilians, French attacked Muslim population
FLN launched campaign of bombings, assassinations at civilians, military in Algiers
French responded with harsh counterterrorism campaign, torturing suspected FLN members
Summer 1957, FLN largely defeated, but war not over
Battle of Algiers
French settlers in Algiers increasingly angry over perceived lack of support from French government
May 1958, French troops, mob of settlers seized control in Algiers, demanded change of government in Paris
Demands met; Charles de Gaulle appointed prime minister in June 1958
De Gaulle seen as strong supporter of settlers of Algeria
Change in Government

8. De Gaulle
De Gaulle hoped to satisfy both French settlers, Algerian nationalists
Wanted to give Algeria limited degree of self-government
Faced violent reaction from French settlers, who did not want France to give up any control
Violent reaction also from nationalists, wanted full independence
De Gaulle decided French rule could not be maintained in Algeria
February 1961, opened peace talks with FLN
1962, signed agreement granting Algeria independence

9. British Mandate of Palestine
The Creation of Israel
Nationalism led to the creation of Israel
Late 1800s Jewish nationalist movement of Zionism growing
Jews calling for an independent state in ancient homeland
After World War I, League of Nations gave Britain control over Palestine, required Britain to make preparations for Jewish homeland
After World War II, Jewish leaders in Palestine pressed British to create Jewish state
British Mandate of Palestine
1947, Britain announced it was giving up control of mandate, turning matter over to the UN
UN proposed to partition, or divide, Palestine into Jewish state and Arab state with Jerusalem under international control
End of British Mandate
Jewish leaders accepted the proposal, but Arabs did not. Despite Arab objections, the UN passed a resolution supporting the partition as valid.

10. Independence and War No Arab State Gaza Strip, West Bank
As British pulled out of Palestine, David Ben-Gurion, other Jewish leaders, declared birth of democratic State of Israel, May 14, 1948
Ben-Gurion later became Israel’s first prime minister
Day after Israel declared independence, armies from Arab countries of Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Transjordan, Iraq invaded Israel, launching first Arab-Israeli war
War lasted from May to December; Arab armies soundly defeated
Arab states negotiated cease-fire agreements, but would not sign permanent peace treaties
One result: Arab state proposed by UN did not come into existence
No Arab State
Both Israel, neighboring Arab countries seized, held land planned for new Arab state
Egypt controlled Gaza Strip, Transjordan controlled territory west of Jordan River known as West Bank
Gaza Strip, West Bank

11. Arab-Israeli war caused massive refugee problems
By end of fighting around 700,000 Palestinian Arabs had become refugees
Fled or expelled from areas that Israel took control of, as well as from general war, chaos
Jewish refugees fled Arab countries and resettled in Israel

12. What events led to the creation of Israel as an independent state?
1947:
Britain announced it was giving up control of
the mandate;
UN proposed to partition Palestine into a Jewish state and an Arab state;
1948:
Jewish leaders declared birth of the State of Israel

13. Changes in Egypt and Iran
Israel’s victory had effects throughout the Arab world.
The victory discredited many of the region’s leaders, and young nationalist leaders came to power in places such as Egypt and Iran.
1922, Egypt gained formal independence from Great Britain
However British troops occupied Suez Canal Zone
1936 treaty allowed Britain to defend Egypt if attacked
A New Government
Egyptian King Farouk I strongly pro-British, seen as dependent on Britain for power
Egypt’s loss in first Arab-Israeli war discredited Farouk, leaders of Egypt’s parliament
Farouk Discredited
Many believed corruption in palace, parliament, army contributed to defeat
Gap between rich, poor in post independence government also angered many Egyptians
Growing Anger

14. Nasser
Out of dissatisfaction came 1952 military coup led by 34-year old colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser; forced King Farouk out of power
Nasser, followers abolished monarchy, created single government party, undertook ambitious land reform program to gain support among poor
Suez Crisis
Nasser became most important figure in Arab world after confrontation with Britain, France, Israel over Suez Canal
Suez Crisis had roots in politics of the Cold War
After Nasser came to power, refused to join Baghdad Pact, U.S.-led alliance against communism in Middle East

15. Growing Crisis Dealing Arms Nationalizing the Canal Growing Hostility
Nasser requested western countries sell him arms; they refused
Turned to Soviet-controlled Czechoslovakia, signed arms deal
U.S., Britain responded by refusing to loan Egypt money to build Aswan Dam
Nationalizing the Canal
Nasser enraged that funding denied for building dam on Nile River
Decided to nationalize, take control of, Suez Canal, which was owned by international company controlled by Britain, France
Growing Hostility
Nasser’s action celebrated as act of defiance by people in Arab world
British, French outraged by seizure of property
Hostility also growing between Egypt, Israel

16. Nasser Popular in Arab World
Pan-Arabism
October 1956, Britain, France, Israel launched coordinated attack on Egypt
Militarily defeated Egyptian forces
U.S. did not support actions, which created tensions with Soviet Union; pressured Britain, France, Israel to withdraw, which they did
Attack on Egypt
Countries withdrew; Egypt left in control of Suez Canal
Suez Crisis had become great victory for Nasser
Nasser promoted Pan-Arabism, or Arab unity
Brought Egypt, Syria together as United Arab Republic, but Syria withdrew two years later
Nasser Popular in Arab World

17. Conflict in Iran
When Mohammad Reza Pahlavi became shah of Iran in 1941, British and Russian troops occupied parts of his country.
British-run company also controlled Iran’s profitable oil industry, kept most of profits
Iranian nationalists determined to take control of country’s oil resources, reduce power of shah, establish constitutional monarchy
Nationalists led by Mohammad Mosaddeq, opponent of foreign influence in Iran
Conflict in Iran
1951, Iranian parliament named Mosaddeq prime minister, voted to nationalize oil industry
Britain, U.S. called for boycott of Iranian oil, preventing Iran from selling much on world market
Mosaddeq worked to reduce power of monarchy and placed army forces under control of government
Mosaddeq

18. Coups Military Coup Mosaddeq Overthrown Reforms Reforms Opposed
Many military officers upset with reforms, joined coup to replace Mosaddeq
Coup supported by U.S., Britain
Mosaddeq Overthrown
Coup successful
Mosaddeq overthrown, shah returned to power
Reforms
Shah began ambitious program of reforms, including land and literacy, women’s rights
Iran’s industry, education, health care improved
Reforms Opposed
Shah continued to rule with iron hand, secret police
Reforms opposed by conservatives as moving away from traditional Islamic values

19. Conflicts with Israel Expansion of Israel
1948, Israel established; since then most Middle Eastern countries have refused to recognize its right to exist
Some countries have repeatedly attacked Israel, funded militant groups that conduct raids, terrorist attacks against Israelis
Expansion of Israel
Series of wars between Israel, neighbors has led to expansion of Israel
Israel controls more land now than in 1948 when created
Result: many Palestinian Arabs live under Israeli control; another source of tension, conflict in region

20. The Arab-Israeli Conflict
The Arab-Israeli conflict that began in 1948 has continued through the years. In 1967 and again in 1973, war erupted. Six years after the 1973 war, Egypt and Israel singed a peace agreement, but unrest among Palestinian Arabs in Israel remained a major problem.
1967, Egypt demanded UN remove troops from Gaza, Sinai Peninsula
Egyptian troops moved into Sinai to close off Gulf of Aqaba, Israel’s route to Red Sea
War in 1967, 1973
Israel expected large-scale Arab attack, decided to strike first
Launched air strikes against Egypt, Syria, Jordan; destroyed most of airplanes on ground
Ground troops moved in, defeated Arabs
Israeli Attacks
In Six-Day War Israel took control of Golan Heights, Sinai Peninsula, Gaza Strip, West Bank, East Jerusalem
Took control of land in West Bank, Gaza with large Palestinian population
Six-Day War

22. Egypt Strikes Back Yom Kippur War U.S. Support Oil Embargo
Egypt, Syria determined to win territory back, launched Yom Kippur War, surprise attack against Israel in 1973
Took name from Jewish holy day when attack began
U.S. Support
At first Arab troops made gains in war; Israeli’s government, led by Golda Meir, not fully prepared for attack; needed military support from U.S.
With support, Israeli forces regrouped, pushed back Egyptian, Syrian armies
Oil Embargo
Both sides agreed to cease-fire after weeks of fighting
During war, Arab members of OPEC declared oil embargo against countries supporting Israel
Price of oil around world rose dramatically as result of refusal to sell oil

23. A Peace Agreement Camp David Peace Treaty
Until the late 1970s, no Arab nation had recognized Israel’s right to exist.
1977, Egyptian president Anwar Sadat made momentous declaration: Egypt wanted peace with Israel
U.S. president Jimmy Carter invited Sadat, Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin to Camp David, presidential retreat in Maryland
Camp David
1978, Sadat, Begin reached agreement known as Camp David Accords
Egypt recognized Israel; Israel returned Sinai Peninsula to Egypt
Treaty ended 30 years hostility between Egypt, Israel
Peace Treaty

24. Palestinian Nationalism Palestinian Resentment
Palestinian Unrest
Egypt, Israel made peace; Palestinian Arabs continued struggle for nationhood
1947 UN partition plan had called for two states in Palestine—a Jewish state, an Arab state
After 1948 Arab-Israeli war, land set aside for Arab state occupied by Israel, Egypt, Jordan
1964, Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) formed
Pledged to destroy Israel, replace with Palestinian state
1969, Yasser Arafat became leader, PLO launched guerilla attacks against Israel
Palestinian Nationalism
In effort to stop attacks, Israel invaded Lebanon, 1978 and 1982
Tensions building also in West Bank, Gaza where Israel had begun building settlements
1987, Palestinian resentment began rebellion called intifada
Palestinian Resentment

25. Tenuous Peace Intifada Oslo Accords Undermining Peace
Palestinian youths battled Israeli troops in widespread street violence
Israel responded with military, police resistance; fighting continued to 1990s
1993, Arafat, Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin negotiated Oslo Accords
Oslo Accords
Oslo Accords called for Palestinians to gradually gain control over governing West Bank, Gaza
Israel, PLO supposed to sign permanent peace agreement by 1998
Undermining Peace
Extremists on both sides worked to undermine peace process
Militant group Hamas launched suicide bombings in Israel
1995, Rabin assassinated; relations between Israeli, Palestinian leadership soured

26. Continuing the Conflict
2000—second intifada began
Palestinian youths joined by Palestinian security forces with guns
Hamas sent suicide bombers into Israel to attack civilians
Israelis countered by sending troops backed by tanks, fighter jets, helicopter gunships into cities in West Bank, Gaza
2004, Arafat died, succeeded by Mahmoud Abbas
More Fighting
2004, Israeli prime minister Ariel Sharon withdrew Israel from Gaza, parts of West Bank
2005, Gaza turned over to Palestinians
2006, militant Hamas won control of Palestinian parliament
Hamas in Control
Armed conflict also erupted when Israeli soldiers were kidnapped along borders with Gaza and Lebanon. Israel launched air strikes to secure its borders.

27. Sequence of events in the Arab-Israeli conflict
1967: Six-Day War
1973: Yom Kippur War
1978: Camp David Accords
1987: intifada
1993: Oslo Accords
2000: second intifada
2005: Israel withdraws from Gaza

28. Revolution in Iran Different Kind of Conflict Westernization of Iran
Different kind of conflict erupted in Iran
Revolution ousted shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi
Westernization of Iran
Shah had close ties with Western governments, oil companies
Iran westernized, foreign influence grew
Society Changed
By 1970s, Iran had changed from traditional rural society
Had become more industrialized, urban society
Islamists Opposed Shah
Many Iranians felt threatened by rapid change, others felt betrayed by corrupt government
Islamists opposed shah because of ties to West

29. 1978, Iranians began to protest against shah’s rule
Rise of Khomeini
1978, Iranians began to protest against shah’s rule
Protests inspired by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, Shia religious leader
1979, unable to calm unrest, shah fled Iran
Iran became Islamic republic with Khomeini as leader, during Iranian Revolution

30. Khomeini’s Reign Khomeini’s Reign American Hostages
Under Khomeini, government suppressed political opposition, enforced strict social religious values
Foreign policy strongly anti-Western, especially after shah went to U.S. for medical treatment
Khomeini’s Reign
1979, Iranian revolutionaries seized U.S. embassy in Tehran, took 66 Americans hostage
Iranians demanded shah be returned to Iran, stand trial
Shah left U.S., but Iranians held hostages until January, 1981
American Hostages

31. Conflict in Iraq Iran-Iraq War Persian Gulf War
As Iran’s new government was dealing with the hostage crisis, it found itself at war with its neighbor, Iraq.
1980, Iraq attacked Iran because of border disputes
Also Iran called for revolution among Iraq’s Shiite population
War long, costly; as many as 500,000 dead on both sides
Iraq used chemical weapons
1988, both sides agreed to cease-fire
Iran-Iraq War
After cease-fire, Saddam Hussein continued to build up Iraq’s military; already had largest army in Arab world
1990, Iraq accused neighboring Kuwait of drilling into Iraqi oil field, stealing oil
Hussein used this as excuse to invade Kuwait
Persian Gulf War

32. Sanctions
In effort to end Iraqi occupation of Kuwait, UN passed economic sanctions against Iraq; sanctions failed
Result: U.S.-led coalition launched Persian Gulf War
Attacked Iraqi forces in Kuwait; Kuwait freed within weeks
Weapons
After war, UN continued economic sanctions, insisted Iraq destroy chemical, biological weapons, agree not to develop nuclear weapons
Inspectors had been sent to verify Iraq’s weapons had been destroyed
Iraq failed to fully cooperate with UN weapons inspectors

33. The Iraq War
After attacks of September 11, 2001, some U.S. leaders believed Saddam Hussein posed a greater threat to America than before
Hussein might have deadly weapons he could give to terrorists
UN weapons inspections did not find stockpiles of chemical, biological, nuclear weapons
Iraq again did not fully cooperate
Some U.S. officials convinced Hussein hiding weapons
Weapons Inspections
2003, another U.S.-led coalition invaded Iraq, forcing Hussein out
Efforts to restore peace thwarted
Growing insurgency targeted coalition forces, Iraqi allies, innocent civilians
Growing Insurgency
Insurgent attacks by different groups from both inside and outside Iraq caused a greater number of casualties.

34. Coalition Government
Meanwhile, coalition worked to create new, democratic government in Iraq
2004, power transferred to Iraqis
2005, Iraqis voted in country’s first multiparty election in fifty years
Later approved new constitution to make Iraq Islamic federal democracy
Continued violence, potential for civil war made country’s future highly uncertain