1. Chapter 16
Respiratory System

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Introduction
The respiratory system consists of tubes that filter incoming air and transport it into the microscopic alveoli where gases are exchanged.
Respiration is defined as the process of inhalation of oxygen and the exhalation of carbon-di-oxide with the help of certain organs of the human body. These organs include the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and the lungs. These organs together make the human respiratory system.

3. Functions of the Respiratory System
Respiration The most important function of the respiratory system is the process of respiration.
The entire process of exchanging gases between the atmosphere and body cells is called and consists of the following: ventilation, gas exchange between blood and lungs, gas transport in the bloodstream, gas exchange between the blood and body cells, and cellular respiration. .

4. Respiration

5. How does the respiratory system function?
1. Inhalation When a person breathes air (which contains oxygen), it passes through the nasal passages containing mucous. This mucous helps in filtering out contaminants like dust, pollen and smoke. The nasal epithelium naturally adds moisture and heat to the air. The larynx prevents food or liquid entering the respiratory tract. The air then passes through the larynx and enters the trachea or the windpipe. Here it gets divided into the two bronchi that connect the trachea to the lungs. The bronchi again gets split into many smaller tubes known as bronchioles. These bronchi end in air sacs, also known as alveoli, which contain blood capillaries. These blood capillaries carry blood which comes through veins from all other parts of the body. Here the carbon dioxide from the blood is exchanged for the oxygen in the alveoli. The blood containing oxygen then goes to the heart where it is later pumped to other parts of the body.

6. 2. Exhalation How does the respiratory system function?
Exhalation in human beings is the process of expelling out of air containing carbon dioxide. The movement of the air while exhalation is through the bronchi, then through the airways and then it passes out through the nose. The exhaled air is completely depleted of oxygen. The lungs are the most important organs of the human respiratory system. There is a muscle located below the lungs known as the diaphragm which also plays an important role in the process of respiration. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts, creating a vacuum that helps in pulling air into the lungs. On the other hand, during exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes which helps in forcing the air out of the lungs.

7. How does the respiratory system function?
3.Vocalization
Vocalization is also one of the major respiratory system functions. Vocalization is the process which enables humans to speak and also to make sound. When the air passes through the pharynx and larynx, it makes the vocal cords in larynx to vibrate which helps in production of sound and speech in humans.
4. Coughing/Sneezing When any foreign particles enter the nasal passages, it can result into irritation. Therefore, expelling out these foreign bodies or irritants is one of the functions of the respiratory system. These irritants are forced out of the respiratory tract through cough or even sneeze

8. To Put It Simply…
The principle functions of the respiratory system are:
Ventilate the lungs
Extract oxygen from the air and transfer it to the bloodstream
Excrete carbon dioxide and water vapor
Maintain the acid base of the blood
Screen and filter air from foreign particles

9. Organs of the Respiratory System
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The organs of the respiratory tract can be divided into two groups: the upper respiratory tract (nose, nasal cavity, sinuses, and pharynx), and the lower respiratory tract (larynx, trachea, bronchial tree, and lungs).

10. Nose
supported by bone and cartilage, provides an entrance for air in which air is filtered by coarse hairs inside the nostrils
Nasal Cavity
space posterior to the nose that is divided medially by the nasal septum
nasal conchae divide the cavity into passageways that are lined with mucous membrane, and help increase the surface area available to warm and filter incoming air
Particles trapped in the mucus are carried to the pharynx by ciliary action, swallowed, and carried to the stomach where gastric juice destroys any microorganisms in the mucus.

11. Paranasal Sinuses
Sinuses are air-filled spaces within the maxillary,frontal, ethmoid, and sphenoid bones of the skull.
These spaces open to the nasal cavity and are lined with mucus membrane that is continuous with that lining the nasal cavity.
The sinuses reduce the weight of the skull and serve as a resonant chamber to affect the quality of the voice.

12. Pharynx aka Throat Larynx common passageway for air and food
aids in producing sounds for speech
Larynx
an enlargement in the airway superior to the trachea and inferior to the pharynx
helps keep particles from entering the trachea and also houses the vocal cords
composed of a framework of muscles and cartilage bound by elastic tissue
Note: Epiglottis & vestibular folds prevent swallowed material from moving into larynx (can move to cover trachea)

13. Larynx continued…
Inside the larynx, two pairs of folds of muscle and connective tissue covered with mucous membrane make up the vocal cords
The upper pair is the false vocal cords
The lower pair is the true vocal cords
Changing tension on the vocal cords controls pitch, while increasing the loudness depends upon increasing the force of air vibrating the vocal cords
During normal breathing, the vocal cords are relaxed and the glottis is a triangular slit
During swallowing, the false vocal cords and epiglottis close off the glottis

14. tracheal wall is supported by 20 incomplete cartilaginous rings
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Trachea
Extends downward anterior to the esophagus and into the thoracic cavity, where it splits into right and left bronchi
inner wall of the trachea is lined with ciliated mucous membrane with many goblet cells that serve to trap incoming particles
tracheal wall is supported by 20 incomplete cartilaginous rings

15. Bronchial Tree
consists of branched tubes leading from the trachea to the alveoli
begins with the two primary bronchi, each leading to a lung
branches of the bronchial tree from the trachea are right and left primarybronchi; these further subdivide until bronchioles give rise to alveolar ducts which terminate in alveoli
it is through the thin epithelial cells of the alveoli that gas exchange between the blood and air occurs

16. Alveoli Extremely thin-walled sacs covered w/ capillaries
CO2 & O2 move by diffusion across the respiratory membrane
About 300 million alveoli in two lungs
Size of a tennis court

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Lungs
the right and left soft, spongy, cone-shaped lungs are separated medially by the mediastinum and are enclosed by the diaphragm and thoracic cage
the bronchus and large blood vessels enter each lung
A layer of serous membrane, the visceral pleura, folds back to form the parietal pleura
The visceral pleura is attached to the lung, and the parietal pleura lines the thoracic cavity; serous fluid lubricates the “pleura cavity” between these two membranes
the right lung has three lobes, the left has two
Each lobe is composed of lobules that contain air passages, alveoli, nerves, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and connective tissues.

21. Breathing Mechanism Inspiration
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Breathing Mechanism
Ventilation (breathing), the movement of air in and out of the lungs, is composed of inspiration and expiration
Inspiration
Atmospheric pressure is the force that moves air into the lungs
When pressure on the inside of the lungs decreases, higher pressure air flows in from the outside
Air pressure inside the lungs is decreased by increasing the size of the thoracic cavity; due to surface tension between the two layers of pleura, the lungs follow with the chest wall and expand
Muscles involved in expanding the thoracic cavity include the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles
As the lungs expand in size, surfactant keeps the alveoli from sticking to each other so they do not collapse when internal air pressure is low.

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Expiration
The forces of expiration are due to the elastic recoil of lung and muscle tissues and from the surface tension within the alveoli
Forced expiration is aided by thoracic and abdominal wall muscles that compress the abdomen against the diaphragm

23. Changing Alveolar Volume
Lung recoil
Causes alveoli to collapse resulting from
Elastic recoil and surface tension
Surfactant: Reduces tendency of lungs to collapse
Pleural pressure
Negative pressure can cause alveoli to expand
Pneumothorax is an opening between pleural cavity & air that causes a loss of pleural pressure

24. Compliance Measure of the ease with which lungs & thorax expand
The greater the compliance, the easier it is for a change in pressure to cause expansion
A lower-than-normal compliance means the lungs and thorax are harder to expand
Conditions that decrease compliance
Pulmonary fibrosis
Pulmonary edema
Respiratory distress syndrome

25. Respiratory Air Volumes and Capacities
The measurement of different air volumes is called spirometry, and it describes four distinct respiratory volumes
One inspiration followed by expiration is called a respiratory cycle; the amount of air that enters or leaves the lungs during one respiratory cycle is the tidal volume
During forced inspiration, an additional volume, the inspiratory reserve volume, can be inhaled into the lungs. IRV + TV gives us the inspiratory capacity
During a maximal forced expiration, an expiratory reserve volume can be exhaled, but there remains a residual volume in the lungs. Adding the two together gives us the functional reservecapacity
Vital capacity is the tidal volume plus inspiratory reserve and expiratory reserve volumes combined
Vital capacity plus residual volume is the total lung capacity
Anatomic dead space is air remaining in the bronchial tree

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Control of Breathing
Normal breathing is a rhythmic, involuntary act even though the muscles are under voluntary control
Respiratory Center
Groups of neurons in the brain stem comprise the respiratory center, which controls breathing by causinginspiration and expiration and by adjusting the rate and depth of breathing

28. Factors Affecting Breathing
Chemicals, lung tissue stretching, an emotional state affect breathing
Chemosensitive areas (central chemoreceptors) are associated with the respiratory center and are sensitive to changes in the blood concentration of carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions
If either carbon dioxide or hydrogen ion concentrations rise, the central chemoreceptors signal the respiratory center, and breathing rate increases
Peripheral chemoreceptors in the carotid sinuses and aortic arch sense changes in blood oxygen concentration, transmit impulses to the respiratory center, and breathing rate and tidal volume increase

29. More Factors Affecting Breathing
An inflation reflex, triggered by stretch receptors in the visceral pleura, bronchioles, and alveoli, helps to prevent over inflation of the lungs during forceful breathing
Hyperventilation lowers the amount of carbon dioxide in the blood

30. Alveolar Gas Exchanges
The alveoli are the only sites of gas exchange between the atmosphere and the blood.
Alveoli
The alveoli are tiny sacs clustered at the distal ends of the alveolar ducts
Respiratory Membrane
The respiratory membrane consists of the epithelial cells of the alveolus, the endothelial cells of the capillary, and the two fused basement membranes of these layers.
Gas exchange occurs across this respiratory membrane

31. Hemoglobin and Oxygen Transport
Oxygen is transported by hemoglobin (98.5%) and is dissolved in plasma (1.5%)
Transport of Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide is transported as bicarbonate ions (70%) in combination with blood proteins (23%) and in solution with plasma (7%)

32. Disorders Asthma— spasms of smooth muscle in the bronchioles
Lung cancer
Constant irritation produces excess mucous and puts unnecessary stress on the bronchi
Alveoli destroyed by WBC’s acting on the irritation
Structural cells disappear and cancer cells take over
Emphysema— alveolar walls lose their elasticity
Some alveoli merge and reduce volume
Have to work voluntarily to exhale
Bronchitis— inflammation of the bronchi
Creates site for infection and increases mucous
Pneumonia— infection or inflammation of the alveoli
Tuberculosis (TB)— bacterial infection that destroys lung tissue and is replaced by non-elastic connective tissue
Respiratory Distress Syndrome (RDS)
Lack of surfactant makes breathing difficult
Alveoli are sticking together
Occurs in infants
Pulmonary Embolism
blood clot obstructs circulation to lung tissue & tissue dies

33. Disorders Respiratory Failure Not enough O2 to maintain metabolism
Cannot eliminate enough CO2
Caused by:
Drugs
Stroke
CO poisoning
Shock
Colds and Flu— viral infections
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
Crib death
Occurs between 1 week and 12 months
Cause is unknown
Baby stops breathing
Laryngitis— vocal cords
Pharyngitis— sore throat
Rhinitis— lining of the nose

34. Effects of Aging
Vital capacity and maximum minute ventilation decrease
Residual volume and dead space increase
Ability to remove mucus from respiratory passageways decreases
Gas exchange across respiratory membrane is reduced