1. Morphological Spelling Assignment Answersː Assimilation to place of articulation (Yoruba) Continuous  [m̩] before + bilabials Aspect [ɱ ̩] before + labio-dentals Morpheme [n̩] before + alveolars & pre-palatal /N̩/ [ɲ ̩] before + palatalized plosives [ŋ ̩] before + velars There are no word rule indicators a) If there are genuine exceptions to a process, it must be a word rule. There are no exceptions found in the data for the assimilation process for the continuous aspect morpheme. (Not an indicator) b) If a process lacks a phonetic reason, it must be a word rule. The rule does not lack a phonetic reason; assimilation, the sound changing according to the position in the mouth, is a phonetic reason. (Not an indicator) c) If the process is not found in roots but only across morpheme boundaries, it must be a word rule. The word 42. [ń̩lá] ‘big’ and 130. [ɲ̀ ̩dʲé] ‘question marker’ are roots with the same assimilation process. The process also occurs in roots and not just at morpheme boundaries. (Not an indicator)

2. Morphological Spelling Assignment Answersː
Assimilation to place of articulation (Yoruba)
Continuous  [m̩] before + bilabials
Aspect [ɱ ̩] before + labio-dentals
Morpheme [n̩] before + alveolars & pre-palatal
/N̩/ [ɲ ̩] before + palatalized plosives
[ŋ ̩] before + velars
There is one phrase rule indicator
a) If a sound produced by a process is an allophone, the process must be a phrase rule. The sounds [ɱ ̩], [ɲ ̩], [ŋ ̩] are allophones and not phonemes. So, the process must be a phrase rule. (Indicator)
b) If a process occurs across a word boundary, it must be a phrase rule.
The process was not found across a word boundary in the data. (Not an indicator)
c) If a sound produced by a process is gradient, the process must be a phrase rule.
No sounds in the data produced by the process were found to be gradient. (Not an indicator)

3. Morphological Spelling Assignment Answersː Since the assimilation process is a phrase rule, we should not write the sound differences produced by the rule. The same nasal symbol (either m or n) should be used for all of the verbs with the continuous aspect morpheme. Original Sound Written 101. [N̩-bì]  [ḿ̩bì] nbi ‘vomitinɡ’ 68. [N̩-fɔ̀]  [ɱ̄ ̩fɔ̀] nfọ ‘washinɡ’ 73. [N̩-rà]  [n̩̄rà] nra ‘buyinɡ’ 124. [N̩-dʲ ī]  [ɲ́ ̩dʲ ī] ndyi ‘stealinɡ’ 66. [N̩-ɡɛ̄]  [ŋ̄ ̩ɡɛ̄] ngẹ ‘cuttinɡ’

4. Morphological Spelling Review
For which kind of rule do we write the sound differences produced by the process?

5. Morphological Spelling Review
For which kind of rule do we write the sound differences produced by the process?
Word Rules (Lexical processes) produce sounds speakers are aware of; the sound differences should be written.
Phrase Rules (Postlexical processes) produce sounds speakers are not aware of; the sound differences should not be written.

6. How does phonology help literacy development?
1. Phonology shows us which sounds in a language need alphabet symbols, and which do not. (Steps 1-14)
2. Sometimes sounds change when words or parts of words are joined in various ways. Phonology helps us find the best spelling rules for these difficult situations. (Steps 18-19)

7. How does phonology help literacy development?
3. Sometimes people choose to write two words the same, even though they pronounce them differently in tone. Phonology helps us know when this is a good choice and when important meaning will be lost by this choice. (Steps 15-17)

8. Steps for finding how to write differences in meaning made by tone (3 of 3)
15. Decide if it is a stress language or tone language
Study the Stress System
Study the Tone System

9. The length, loudness or higher pitch that makes a syllable stand out.
STRESS
The length, loudness or higher pitch that makes a syllable stand out.
TONE
The pitch of a segment, syllable or word.
ENGLISH
desert [dəˈsɹ̩t] ‘sweet food at the
end of a meal’
BONGO Sudan
tàgá ‘evening’

10. What’s the difference between a Stress Language and a Tone Language?
In a stress language,
pitch, length, or loudness combine to make one syllable per word stand out more than others.
In a tone language,
various levels of pitch are phonemes that show the difference in meaning for words.
SWAHILI
áchà ‘to leave’
àbúdù ‘to worship
ùgálì ‘porridge’
ùtífù ‘obedience’
àlàsírì ‘afternoon’
àsùbúhì ‘morning’
BONGO Sudan
kɪ́dɪ́ ‘vein’
kɪ̀dɪ̀ ‘snake type’
kágá ‘tree’
kàdà ‘sun’
tàgá ‘evening’
bʊ́ɾʊ́kʊ́ ‘ashes’
pɪ̀lɛ̀gʊ̀ ‘bird type’
màgʊ́bá ‘worm’

11. How can we tell if it is a Stress Language or Tone Language?
Stress Languages
1. Have only one syllable with High tone per word.
Tone Languages
1. Can have more than one syllable with High tone per word.
SWAHILI
áchà ‘to leave’
àbúdù ‘to worship
ùgálì ‘porridge’
ùtífù ‘obedience’
àlàsírì ‘afternoon’
àsùbúhì ‘morning’
BONGO Sudan
kágá ‘tree’
kàdà ‘sun’
tàgá ‘evening’
bʊ́ɾʊ́kʊ́ ‘ashes’
pɪ̀lɛ̀gʊ̀ ‘bird type’
màgʊ́bá ‘worm’

12. How can we tell if it is a Stress Language or Tone Language?
Stress Languages
2. In words with more than one syllable, all syllables cannot have High tones and all cannot have Low tones.
Tone Languages
2. In words with more than one syllable, all syllables can have High tones or all can have Low tones.
SWAHILI
áchà ‘to leave’
àbúdù ‘to worship
ùgálì ‘porridge’
ùtífù ‘obedience’
àlàsírì ‘afternoon’
àsùbúhì ‘morning’
BONGO Sudan
kágá ‘tree’
kàdà ‘sun’
tàgá ‘evening’
bʊ́ɾʊ́kʊ́ ‘ashes’
pɪ̀lɛ̀gʊ̀ ‘bird type’
màgʊ́bá ‘worm’

13. How can we tell if it is a Stress Language or Tone Language?
Stress Languages
3. High tone may always be on a certain syllable in words.
Tone Languages
3. High tone is not limited to a certain syllable in words.
SWAHILI
áchà ‘to leave’
àbúdù ‘to worship
ùgálì ‘porridge’
ùtífù ‘obedience’
àlàsírì ‘afternoon’
àsùbúhì ‘morning’
BONGO Sudan
kágá ‘tree’
kàdà ‘sun’
tàgá ‘evening’
bʊ́ɾʊ́kʊ́ ‘ashes’
pɪ̀lɛ̀gʊ̀ ‘bird type’
màgʊ́bá ‘worm’

14. How can we tell if it is a Stress Language or Tone Language?
Stress Languages
4. Have no contrast of tone in analogous environments.
Tone Languages
4. Have contrast of tone in analogous environments.
SWAHILI
áchà ‘to leave’
àbúdù ‘to worship
ùgálì ‘porridge’
ùtífù ‘obedience’
àlàsírì ‘afternoon’
àsùbúhì ‘morning’
BONGO Sudan
kágá ‘tree’
kàdà ‘sun’
tàgá ‘evening’
bʊ́ɾʊ́kʊ́ ‘ashes’
pɪ̀lɛ̀gʊ̀ ‘bird type’
màgʊ́bá ‘worm’

15. How can we tell if it is a Stress Language or Tone Language?
Stress Languages
5. Length and high tone are always together in the same syllable in a word.
Tone Languages
5. Length and high tone can be on separate syllables in a word.
KHARTOUM ARABIC
ɟɑ́ɑ́mɪ̀ʔ ‘mosque’
rɑ́ɑ́ɟɪ̀l ‘husband’
ɟɑ̀wɑ́ɑ̀z ‘passport’
hɪ̀sɑ́ɑ̀b ‘bill of service’
bɪ̀d̪ɑ́ɑ́jɑ̀ ‘beginning’
ɟɑ̀ɾɑ́ɑ́d̪ɑ̀ ‘locust’
GAAHMG Sudan
fádɔ́ɔ́l ‘farmland’
bārɔ̄ɔ̄l ‘cistern’
sɛ̀ŋààd̪ ‘instrument’
kānāàd̪ ‘bowel’
sɛ̄wɛ́ɛ́l ‘tree type’
mə́ðùūl ‘village name’

16. How can we tell if it is a Stress Language or Tone Language?
Stress Languages
6. On the final syllable of words said by themselves, can have High-falling tone but not High tone.
Tone Languages
6. On the final syllable of words said by themselves, can have High tone.
KHARTOUM ARABIC
ɟɑ́ɑ́mɪ̀ʔ ‘mosque’
rɑ́ɑ́ɟɪ̀l ‘husband’
ɟɑ̀wɑ́ɑ̀z ‘passport’
hɪ̀sɑ́ɑ̀b ‘bill of service’
bɪ̀d̪ɑ́ɑ́jɑ̀ ‘beginning’
ɟɑ̀ɾɑ́ɑ́d̪ɑ̀ ‘locust’
GAAHMG Sudan
fádɔ́ɔ́l ‘farmland’
bārɔ̄ɔ̄l ‘cistern’
sɛ̀ŋààd̪ ‘instrument’
kānāàd̪ ‘bowel’
sɛ̄wɛ́ɛ́l ‘tree type’
mə́ðùūl ‘village name’

17. Steps for finding how to write differences in meaning made by tone (3 of 3)
15. Decide if it is a stress language or tone language
Study the Stress System
A. Decide if stress is a phoneme or an allophone.
B. If an allophone, find its predictable environment.

18. How do we know if stress is an phoneme or an allophone?
Stress is a phoneme
We cannot predict nor write a rule to say the environment where stress occurs.
Stress is an allophone
We can predict and write a rule to say the environment where stress occurs.
ENGLISH
contract [ˈkʰɒńtɹæ̀ktʰ] ‘agreement’
contract [kə̀nˈtɹæ̂ktʰ] ‘to make an
agreement’
rebel [ˈrɛ́bl̩̀] ‘person who is
against a system’
rebel [rə̀ˈbɛ̂l] ‘to act against a
system’
desert [ˈdɛ́sɹ̀t] ‘hot, dry area’
desert [də̀ˈsɹ̂t] ‘sweet food at the
end of a meal’
SWAHILI
ˈáchà ‘to leave’
àˈbúdù ‘to worship
ùˈgálì ‘porridge’
ùˈtífù ‘obedience’
àlàˈsírì ‘afternoon’
àsùˈbúhì ‘morning’
Stress Rule
Stress always occurs on the next to last syllable of a word.

19. Exercise 1ː In which environment does stress occur in the following words? KHARTOUM ARABIC ˈɟɪ́sɪ̀m ‘body’ bɪ̀ˈd̪ɑ́ɑ́jɑ̀ ‘beginning’ ˈɟɑ́bɑ̀l ‘hill’ ɟɑ̀ˈɾɑ́ɑ́d̪ɑ̀ ‘locust’ ˈt̪ɑ́mɑ̀n ‘price’ ˈbɑ́ɾɑ̀kɑ̀ ‘blessing’ ˈrɑ́ɑ́ɟɪ̀l ‘husband’ ˈsɑ́fɑ̀gɑ̀ ‘leaf’ ˈɟɑ́ɑ́mɪ̀ʔ ‘mosque’ t̪ùˈrɑ́ɑ̀b ‘dust’ ɟɑ̀ˈwɑ́ɑ̀z ‘passport’ hɪ̀ˈsɑ́ɑ̀b ‘bill of service’

20. Exercise 1ː Decide if stress is a phoneme or allophone
Exercise 1ː Decide if stress is a phoneme or allophone. If it is an allophone, write a rule that predicts the environment where it occurs. KHARTOUM ARABIC ˈɟɪ́sɪ̀m ‘body’ bɪ̀ˈd̪ɑ́ɑ́jɑ̀ ‘beginning’ ˈɟɑ́bɑ̀l ‘hill’ ɟɑ̀ˈɾɑ́ɑ́d̪ɑ̀ ‘locust’ ˈt̪ɑ́mɑ̀n ‘price’ ˈbɑ́ɾɑ̀kɑ̀ ‘blessing’ ˈrɑ́ɑ́ɟɪ̀l ‘husband’ ˈsɑ́fɑ̀gɑ̀ ‘leaf’ ˈɟɑ́ɑ́mɪ̀ʔ ‘mosque’ t̪ùˈrɑ́ɑ̀b ‘dust’ ɟɑ̀ˈwɑ́ɑ̀z ‘passport’ hɪ̀ˈsɑ́ɑ̀b ‘bill of service’ Stress Rule Stress occurs on the syllable with long vowel, or on the first syllable when there are no long vowels.

21. Class Assignmentː
Based on the tone markings on your Yoruba words, decide if Yoruba is a stress language or a tone language. Give reasons for your decision with example words.
Reading Assignment
A Guide to Phonological Analysis pg 76-80
Tone Analysis for Field Linguists (1.3 and 1.4) pg