1. Questions? Comments? Midterms back
Chapter 5 Exx: 2, 3, 4, 9, 11 (Give surface and deep structure for 11 – no trees) due 5/15
Problem Set 4 due 5/20
Goals for syntax chapter
Not responsible for Section 4 (Verb raising) or how to do passive sentences
You should know how to do the following:
identify the lexical/syntactic category of word
construct phrases and simple sentences and sentences with embedded sentences (draw trees for these structures)
apply different movement operations to derive surface structure forms from deep structure
Determine how a sentence is structurally ambiguous (from Ch 6 – 3.2)

2. Syntax The part of the grammar that combines words into sentences
Slide 1
Syntax
The part of the grammar that combines words into sentences
The study of the system of rules and categories that underlies sentence formation.
The goal of syntax is to come up with universal principles (Universal Grammar) that describes all languages phrase formation procedures
Syntax is responsible for the hierarchical structure of phrases and their creation
The goal of syntactic theory is to be boring and repetitive (i.e. systematic and universal)
Think of syntax as a template for sentence formation that can operate for all sentences for all languages

3. Syntax Syntactic Categories
Slide 2
Syntax
Syntactic Categories
Lexical categories: Noun (N), Verb (V), Adjective (A), Preposition (P) and Adverb (Adv)
Nonlexical Categories: Determiner (Det); Auxiliary Verb (Aux) - Modal and Nonmodal; Conjunction (Con); Degree word (Deg)
Table 5.1, p. 157 (on next slide)
Harder to define nonlexical words (the or so compared to hill or book)
Some words can belong to more than one category - examples? like/fond

4. Syntax
Slide 3
Syntax

5. Syntax Lexical: words that have semantic content
Slide 4
Syntax
Lexical:
words that have semantic content
words that can be inflected
an open class to which new members can be added
includes nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and prepositions
Nonlexical:
words that have grammatical function
words that do not have morphology
words that resist change
a closed class to which new members are not added
includes determiners, auxiliary verbs, degree words, qualifiers, pronouns, conjunctions, complementizers, and particles

6. Syntax How to determine syntactic category – MEANING TEST
Slide 5
Syntax
How to determine syntactic category – MEANING TEST
Noun = person, place or thing (Jeff, classroom, book)
Verb = action, sensation, state of being (run, loves, sees, be)
Adjective = describes a noun (green, ugly)
Adverb = describes a verb (quickly, slowly)
Preposition = describes physical location (to, for, from, on, in)

7. Syntax How to determine syntactic category – INFLECTION TEST
Slide 6
Syntax
How to determine syntactic category – INFLECTION TEST
Only certain inflectional suffixes attach to certain lexical categories
There are some words that belong to these syntactic categories that do not take these suffixes (*funner, *intelligenter)
Category
Inflectional Affix
Examples
N (Noun)
plural -s
books, chairs, doctors
possessive -’s
John’s, (the) man’s
V (Verb)
past tense -ed
arrived, melted, hopped
progressive -ing
arriving, melting, hopping
3rd person sing. -s
arrives, melts, hops
A (Adjective)
comparative -er
taller, faster, smarter
superlative -est
tallest, fastest, smartest

8. Syntax How to determine syntactic category – DISTRIBUTION - SPECIFIERS
Slide 7
Syntax
How to determine syntactic category – DISTRIBUTION - SPECIFIERS
Determiner = specifies a noun (the, a, these, that)
Adverbs = specifies a verb (always, often, never)
Degree = specifies an adjective or preposition (very, quite, really)
So you can tell a N if it can occur after a Det
A V can occur with an Aux verb
An Adjective with a degree word
Look at Exercise 2

9. Syntax
Slide 8
Syntax
Phrase Structure - units of words, but not sentences = phrases
Each phrase consists of the head, a specifier and a complement
The way the book groups phrases is called X' (X bar) where X stands for whatever category you’re dealing with (Noun, Verb, Adjectives, Prepositions) XP X'
(Specifier) X
(Complement)
head

10. Syntax Noun phrases (NP) presidents - contains only the head noun
Slide 9
Syntax
Noun phrases (NP)
presidents - contains only the head noun
the presidents - contains a specifier and head noun
presidents of the USA - contains the head N and a complement prepositional phrase
the presidents of the USA - contains a specifier, head N, complement PP
The complement PP of the USA contains the head P of and a complement NP. The NP the USA contains the specifier and head N

11. Syntax NP Det N' N Phrase Structure
Slide 10
Syntax
Phrase Structure
Specifiers can occur before the head (in English) and are optional (they attach at the Phrase level) NP
the
Det N' N
presidents

12. Syntax Phrase Structure
Slide 11
Syntax
Phrase Structure
Complements can occur after the head (in English) and are optional (they attach to the Bar level)

13. Syntax Verb Phrases (VP) sings - contains only the head verb
Slide 12
Syntax
Verb Phrases (VP)
sings - contains only the head verb
often sings - contains a specifier and head verb
sings a ballad - contains the head V and a complement NP
often sings a ballad - contains a specifier, head V, complement NP
The complement NP a ballad contains the head N ballad and specifier a.

14. Syntax Adjective Phrases (AP)
Slide 13
Syntax
Adjective Phrases (AP)
happy - contains only the head adjective (A)
very happy - contains a specifier and head A
happy with the results - contains the head A and a complement PP
very happy with the results - contains a specifier, head A, complement PP
The complement PP with the results contains the head P and complement NP the results. The NP contains specifier and head N.

15. Syntax Prepositional Phrases (PP)
Slide 14
Syntax
Prepositional Phrases (PP)
in - contains only the head preposition (P)
almost in - contains a specifier and head P
in the car - contains the head P and a complement NP
almost in the car - contains a specifier, head P, complement NP
The complement NP the car contains the head N and specifier.

16. Syntax Phrase structure rules
Slide 15
Syntax
Phrase structure rules
The preceding examples show that any given phrase can be composed of a mandatory head and optional complement and optional specifier. This is written as:
XP  (Spec) X (Comp)
The optional components are written in ( )s.
From previous examples we have the following:
Can you think of any other possibilities?
NP  (Det) N (PP)
VP  (Adv) V (NP)
AP  (Deg) A (PP)
PP  (Deg) P (NP)

17. Syntax NP N' N Phrase Structure The heads of a phrase are mandatory
Slide 16
Syntax
Phrase Structure
The heads of a phrase are mandatory NP N' N
dog

18. Syntax NP N' N Det Phrase Structure
Slide 17
Syntax
Phrase Structure
Specifiers can occur before the head (in English) and are optional NP N' N
dog
the
Det

19. Syntax NP N' N Det PP Phrase Structure
Slide 18
Syntax
Phrase Structure
Complements can occur after the head (in English) and are optional NP N' N
dog
the
Det
s are only used when it is not necessary to show the internal structure of that phrase. Assume that it is NOT OK to use s.
in the house PP

20. Syntax NP N' N Det PP Phrase Structure Rules
Slide 19
Syntax
Phrase Structure Rules
XP  (specifier) X (complement) NP N' N
dog
the
Det
in the house PP

21. Syntax AP A' A Deg Phrase Structure Rules AP  Deg A happy quite
Slide 20
Syntax
Phrase Structure Rules
AP  Deg A AP A' A
happy
quite
Deg

22. Syntax Adv VP V' V Phrase Structure Rules VP  Adv V always eats
Slide 21
Syntax
Phrase Structure Rules
VP  Adv V
always
Adv VP V' V
eats

23. Syntax PP P' P NP N' Det N Phrase Structure Rules PP  P NP on the
Slide 22
Syntax
Phrase Structure Rules
PP  P NP
couch NP PP P' P on
Det N' N
the

24. MERGE Syntax Adv VP V' V NP PP P' P Det N' N always eats
Slide 23
Syntax
always
Adv VP V' V
eats
VP  Deg V PP; PP  P NP
couch NP PP P' P on
Det N' N
the
MERGE

25. Syntax Adv VP V' V NP PP P' P Det N' N always eats
Slide 24
Syntax
always
Adv VP V' V
eats
VP  Deg V PP; PP  P NP
couch NP PP P' P on
Det N' N
the

26. Syntax
Practice 25
Syntax Practice
For each of the following phrases, determine the head of the phrase, any specifiers, and any complements.
Head
Specifier
Complement
the rat
in the barn
very small
awfully cute
swept the floor
the poem about love
rat
the in
the barn
small
very
cute
awfully
swept
the floor
poem
about love

27. Syntax
Practice 26
Syntax Practice
Draw phrase structure trees for the following: Click here for answers
the rat
men
in the barn
really mean
ran
ran into the shed
rather boring
hate those pancakes
the denial of the accusation
Exercises 3 and 4 XP X'
(Specifier) X
(Complement)
head

28. These elements are mandatory for an English Sentence.
Syntax
Slide 27
Simple sentences
The sentence or IP is the highest level in the sentence structure. Inflected Phrase
These elements are mandatory for an English Sentence.
IP  NP (subject ) I' (inflection)
I'  I VP (predicate)
I  + or - Past and/or a Modal
Lines will never intersect
NP to the left
VP to the right

29. Steps in drawing trees. (in appendix of chapter)
Syntax
Slide 28
Syntax
Steps in drawing trees. (in appendix of chapter)
Step 1 - assign each word to the appropriate category.

30. Syntax Steps in drawing trees.
Slide 29
Syntax
Steps in drawing trees.
Step 2 – working from right to left (for English), write the appropriate phrasal structure. Specifiers go directly to XP level.

31. Syntax Steps in drawing trees.
Slide 30
Syntax
Steps in drawing trees.
Step 3 – There is no complement for the NP that man so move on to the previous VP. The NP is a complement for the VP so attach the NP to V'

32. Syntax Steps in drawing trees.
Slide 31
Syntax
Steps in drawing trees.
Step 4 – The VP is not a complement of the NP. Draw the final NP.

33. Syntax Steps in drawing trees.
Slide 32
Syntax
Steps in drawing trees.
Step 5 – Connect the predicate VP and the subject NP as the complement and specifier (respectively) of IP

34. The students hated the textbook
Syntax
Slide 33
Sentences (IP)
Each IP consists of an NP as specifier and the head (which is Inflection) with VP as a complement: The students hated the book IP N' NP I' VP V' NP N' I
Det N
+Pst V
Det N
The students hated the textbook

35. The students will hate the textbook
Syntax
Slide 34
Sentences (IP)
Each IP consists of an NP as specifier and the head (which is Inflection) with VP as a complement: The students will hate the book IP N' NP I' VP V' NP N' I
Det N
- Pst V
Det N
The students will hate the textbook

36. The housewives kept the secrets
Syntax
Slide 35
Sentences (IP)
Each IP consists of an NP as specifier and the head (which is Inflection) with VP as a complement: The housewives kept the secrets N N' NP
Det V V' VP I'
+Pst I IP
The housewives kept the secrets

37. The housewives can keep the secrets
Syntax
Slide 36
Sentences (IP)
Each IP consists of an NP as specifier and the head (which is Inflection) with VP as a complement: The housewives can keep the secrets N N' NP
Det V V' VP I'
- Pst I IP
The housewives can keep the secrets

38. Practice drawing trees for the following sentences
Syntax
Practice 37
“Simple” sentences
Practice drawing trees for the following sentences
Dogs should always go for a walk.
!Those monsters were hiding under the bed.
Abner concealed the document.
Marge usually watches the sunset.
!The children are playing with a dinosaur.
! Difficult – we will discuss (hint: these structures have verbs that take a complement VP)

39. Syntax
Practice 38

40. Syntax
Practice 39

41. Syntax
Practice 40

42. Syntax
Practice 41

43. Syntax
Practice 42

44. Complement Clauses (embedded sentences)
Syntax
Slide 43
Complement Clauses (embedded sentences)
Think about this sentence
I wonder if she will take the test.
How do we incorporate the second sentence: she will take the test?
This second sentence (called a complement clause or CP) is serving as the complement of the V wonder
Like all other syntactic structures, CPs consist of: CP  C ' and C '  C IP
Words such as that, whether and if are known as complementizers (C).
The specifier position is open for Move operations (discussed later)
Matrix clauses are the largest clause that contain the CP(s)
[I wonder [if she will take the test.]]

45. Example of a complement clause
Syntax
Slide 44
Example of a complement clause

46. Practice (No Triangles!)
Syntax
Practice 45
Practice (No Triangles!)
Nancy believes that aliens exist.
Sailors know that the ship could sink.
!The tourists hope that whales
will be swimming near the boat.
(!very difficult!)
Exercise 9 (No Triangles!)
a) The reporter said that an accident injured the woman.
b) The fishermen think that the company polluted the bay.
c) Bill reported that a student asked whether the eclipse would occur.

47. Syntax
Practice 46

48. Syntax
Practice 47

49. Syntax
Practice 48

50. A Bit Theoretically Bizarre
Syntax
Slide 49
A Bit Theoretically Bizarre
If we want to keep the structures the same for the theory (templates), then it is posited that all IPs are actually CPs with or without a C (like we have I whether or not it actually gets filled with a surface form).

51. Complement Clauses (embedded sentences)
Syntax
Slide 50
Complement Clauses (embedded sentences)
Identify the CP (Complement Phrase) in the following matrix sentences. Put brackets [ ] around the CP.
1.) The teacher hopes [that the students will study hard].
1.) The teacher hopes that the students will study hard .
2.) The janitor wondered [if the floor would stay clean].
2.) The janitor wondered if the floor would stay clean .
3.) The floor knew [that it would not stay clean].
3.) The floor knew that it would not stay clean .

52. Syntax
Slide 51
Structural Ambiguity
We have been presenting different phrase structure trees to show the hierarchy and relationship of the different phrases in a sentence. What happens when the difference in the relationship of these phrases also causes a difference in the meaning/interpretation of a sentence?
When there are two or more interpretations of one sentence with the exact same words in the exact same order, we call this structural ambiguity (discussed in your text in Chapter 6, section 3.2).

53. Syntax
Slide 52
Structural Ambiguity
For example: Sam ate the cake in the kitchen. (See handout for answers)
What are the 2 meanings? What is the relationship between the phrases in the sentence (what modifies what?)
Interpretation 1: Sam ate the cake that was in the kitchen.
Relationship of phrases in the sentence: The PP in the kitchen modifies the N cake
Interpretation 2: Sam was eating the cake in the kitchen.
Relationship of phrases in the sentence: The PP in the kitchen modifies the V ate

54. Syntax
Slide 53
Structural Ambiguity
Interpretation 1: Sam ate the cake that was in the kitchen.
Relationship of phrases in the sentence: The PP in the kitchen modifies the N cake
Interpretation 2: Sam was eating the cake in the kitchen.
Relationship of phrases in the sentence: The PP in the kitchen modifies the V ate

55. Syntax
Slide 54
Structural Ambiguity
Brings us to more complicated Phrase structure trees.
See examples to right for non-modal aux verbs that take VP complement

56. Syntax
Slide 55
Structural Ambiguity
Brings us to more complicated Phrase structure trees.
See page 164 for a verb with 2 complements.

57. Fancy term for what complements any XP can or must take
Syntax
Slide 56
Subcategorization
Fancy term for what complements any XP can or must take
Verbs that can take a complement are transitive (eat, read, look) She read a book
Verbs that do not are intransitive (sleep, lie, laugh) He slept
See Table 5.5, p. 163 for what complements certain verbs can take

58. Syntax
Slide 57
Questions?
Following our rules for sentence structure how do we account for questions?
Is the man intelligent?
Can you come to dinner?
In the first example, there is no NP to the left of the IP and in the second, the modal is before the subject.
To explain this we will use the theory of: Deep Structure.

59. Syntax
Slide 58
Deep Structure
Accounting for sentences such as questions and passives with a new set of rules would be messy.
Transformational grammar accounts for the differences with transformations (move). All sentences in deep structure (before the move) will follow our previous phrasal rules.
{Parallel with Underlying Representation and rules to derive surface representation in Phonology}
How do we know deep structure exists?

60. Arguments for Deep Structure
Syntax
Slide 59
Arguments for Deep Structure
What will you say?
In this sentence What is functioning as the object of the sentence.
This can be demonstrated by trying to add an object after the verb.
* What will you say goodbye.
In this sentence, the verb requires an object, so omitting it in the non-question form does not work
* You will say

61. Arguments for Deep Structure
Syntax
Slide 60
Arguments for Deep Structure
Deep structure for this sentence is
You will say what?
To arrive at deep structure
Merge -> Deep Structure
Deep Structure -> Move
Surface structure
Surface structure trees must show traces of unit’s original position.

62. D-Structure and S-Structure
Syntax
Slide 61
D-Structure and S-Structure

63. Movement 2 types of movement: Inversion (yes/no question)
Syntax
Slide 62
Movement
2 types of movement:
Inversion (yes/no question)
That guy should eat an apple  Should that guy t eat an apple?
Wh- Movement + Inversion
the students should read what for class  What should the students t read t for class?

64. Movement - Inversion CP C ' C student that should study V Det V' VP I'
Syntax
Slide 63
Movement - Inversion CP
C ' C +Q
student
that
should
study V
Det V' VP I' I
-pst N N' NP IP

65. Movement - Inversion CP C ' C IP should I I' NP VP V' N' I Det N V
Syntax
Slide 64
Movement - Inversion CP
C ' C +Q IP
should I
-pst I' NP VP V' N' I
-pst
Det N V
that
student t
study

66. Movement - Inversion and Do insertion
Syntax
Slide 65
Movement - Inversion and Do insertion CP
C ' C +Q IP I' NP VP V' N' I
+pst
Det N V
did
that
student
studied
study

67. Movement - Inversion and Do insertion
Syntax
Slide 66
Movement - Inversion and Do insertion CP
C ' C +Q IP I
+pst
did I' NP VP V' N' I
+pst
Det N V
that
student t
study

68. Movement - Inversion and Wh- movement
Syntax
Slide 67
Movement - Inversion and Wh- movement CP
C ' C +Q IP I' NP VP V' N' I
-pst N N'
syntax NP
Det N V
should
that
student
study

69. Movement - Inversion and Wh- movement
Syntax
Slide 68
Movement - Inversion and Wh- movement CP
C ' C +Q IP I
-pst
should I' NP VP V' N' I
-pst
Det N N'
syntax NP N V
that
student t
study

70. Movement - Inversion and Wh- movement
Syntax
Slide 69
Movement - Inversion and Wh- movement CP
C ' C +Q IP I
-pst
should I' NP VP V' N' I
-pst N N'
what NP
Det N V
that
student t
study

71. Movement - Inversion and Wh- movement
Syntax
Slide 70
Movement - Inversion and Wh- movement CP
C ' C +Q N N'
what NP IP I
-pst
should I' NP VP V' N' I
-pst NP
Det N V N'
that
student t
study N t

72. Practice Identifying D-Structure & S-Structure
Syntax
Slide 71
Practice Identifying D-Structure & S-Structure
In order to get the deep structure from the surface structure, follow these steps:
YOU SEE:
YOU THINK:
YOU DO:
A modal auxiliary verb ahead of the subject.
Inversion has taken place.
Put the modal aux back into its deep structure position in I.
A wh word or phrase.
Wh Movement had taken place.
Examine each verb in the sentence. Determine if a verb is missing either subject or an object, and put the wh word or phrase into that position.
Examine each preposition in the sentence. Determine if a preposition is missing an object. Put the wh word or phrase into that position.

73. Deep structure  Surface structure
Syntax
Practice 72
Deep structure  Surface structure
a dog can bark  can a dog t bark
the students will be bored  will the students t be bored
the trip will be enjoyable  will the trip t be enjoyable
who can see the shore  who can t t see the shore
Can a dog bark?
Will the students be bored?
Will the trip be enjoyable?
Who can see the shore?
Exercise 11