1. Muscles and Movement
Topic 11.2

2. Human Skeleton Axial skeleton Supports the axis, or trunk of the body.
Consists of :
the skull, enclosing and protecting the brain
the vertebral column (backbone), enclosing the spinal cord
a rib cage around the lungs and heart

3. Human Skeleton Appendicular skeleton
Made up of the bones of the appendages (arms and legs) and the bones that anchor the appendages to the axial skeleton.
Shoulder girdle and pelvic girdle provide a base of support for the bones of the forelimbs and hind limbs.

4. Human Skeleton Distinct features:
Housing our large brain, our skull is large and flat-faced; its rounded part is the largest braincase relative to body size in the animal kingdom.
The skull is balanced atop the backbone with the spinal cord exiting directly underneath.
Our backbone is S-shaped, which helps balance the body in the vertical plane.
Pelvic girdle is short, round, and oriented vertically
Human hand is adapted for strong gripping and precise manipulation.
Our feet, with ground-touching heel, straight-facing big toe for propulsion, and shock-absorbing arches, are specialized for supporting the entire body and for bipedal walking.
Our vertical backbone bears weight unevenly, and our lower back carries much of the load.
The lower back is easily strained, especially when we bend over or lift heavy objects.

5. Human movement requires…
Bones
Ligaments
Muscles
Tendons
Nerves

6. Role of Bones
Bones
provide rigid framework against which muscles attach and against which leverage can be produced, changing the size or direction of forces generated by muscles.

7. Role of Ligaments Ligaments
connect bone to bone, restricting movement at joints and helping to prevent dislocation.
Made of strong fibrous connective tissues

8. Role of muscles Muscles
attach to bones via tendons, and when muscles contract, they create the forces that move bones; using leverage, small muscle contractions can produce large bone movements

9. Role of tendons
Tendons
attach muscles to bone.

10. Role of nerves
Nerves
provide a communication network along which messages can be sent signaling muscles to contract at a precise time and extent, so that movement is coordinated.

11. Elbow joint

12. Human Skeleton
Much of the versatility of the vertebrate skeleton comes from its joints.
Strong fibrous connective tissues called ligaments hold together the bones of movable joints.
Three kinds of joints:
1. ball-and-socket joints- HIP!
Enables us to rotate our arms and legs and move them in several planes
Protraction/retraction: forward and backwards
Abduction/adduction: sideways in and out
Rotation: circular movement
For example, where the humerus joins the shoulder girdle and also where the femur joins the pelvic girdle
2. hinge joint- KNEE!
Permits movement in a single plane
But constrains movement from other two planes
For example, in the knee:
Flexion bends the leg
Extension straightens the leg
For example, found in the arm, elbow and also in the knee
3. pivot joint
Enable us to rotate the forearm at the elbow.
Hinge and pivot joints in our wrists and hands enable us to make precise manipulations.

13. Ball-and-socket joint

14. Hinge Joint- Elbow

15. Pivot Joint- Forearm

16. Human Elbow Joint

17. Functions of the structures of the Human Elbow
Cartilage: reduces friction between bones where they meet
Synovial fluid: lubricates joint to reduce friction
Joint capsule: seals the joint and holds in the synovial fluid
Humerus: upper arm bone: attachment of biceps and triceps
Ulna & radius: forearm bones: attachment of biceps and triceps
Biceps: attaches from humerus to ulna & radius
Triceps: attaches from humerus to ulna
Antagonism: biceps and triceps attach across elbow joint; while triceps contracts to to extend arm, biceps relaxes; conversely, while treceps relax and the biceps contract, flexing the arm

18. Bone
Bones are complex organs consisting of several kinds of moist, living tissues.
For example, Figure 30.4 a human humerus (upper arm bone):
Consists of a sheet of fibrous connective tissue that covers most of the outside surface.(periosteum)
Tissue helps form new bone in the event of a fracture.
A thin sheet of cartilage forms a cushion-like surface for joints, protecting the ends of bones as they move against one another.
Synovial membrane encloses the joint in synovial fluid.
Synovial fluid is formed from blood plasma and is secreted by the synovial membrane. It lubricates the joint as well as nourishing the cartilage.

19. Bone
For example, Figure 30.4 a human humerus (upper arm bone) continued…:
The bone itself contains living cells that secrete a surrounding material, or matrix.
Bone matrix consists of flexible fibers of the protein collagen embedded in a hard mineral made of calcium and phosphate.
The collagen keeps the bone flexible and nonbrittle, while the hard mineral matrix resists compression

20. Bone
For example, Figure 30.4 a human humerus (upper arm bone)continued…:
The shaft of this long bone is made of compact bone, so named because it has a dense structure.
The compact bone surrounds a central cavity with contains yellow bone marrow, which is mostly stored fat brought into the bone by the blood.
the ends, or heads, of the bone have an outer layer of compact bone and an inner layer of spongy bone, so named because it is honeycombed with small cavities.
The cavities contain red bone marrow, a specialized tissue that produces are blood cells.
Blood vessels course through channels in the bone, transporting nutrients and regulatory hormones to its cells.
Nerves paralleling the blood vessels help regulate the traffic of materials between the bone and the blood.

21. Bone

22. Diagram of a Human Elbow Joint

23. Skeleton and muscle interactions
Muscles interact with bones, which act as levers, to produce movement.
Muscles are connected to bones by tendons
For example, one end of the biceps muscle shown in figure 30.7 is attached by tendons to bones of the shoulder; the other end is attached across the hinge joint of the elbow—which acts as the point of support—to one of the bones in the forearm.

24. Skeleton and muscle interactions
The action of a muscle is always to contract, or shorten.
A muscle’s relaxation to an extended position is a passive process.
The ability to move an arm in opposite directions requires that muscles be attached to the arm bones in antagonistic pairs.
In the arm:
contraction of the biceps muscle raises the forearm.
The triceps muscle is the biceps’s antagonist.
The upper end of the triceps attaches to the shoulder, while its lower end attaches to the elbow.
The contraction of the triceps lowers the forearm, extending the biceps in the process.

25. Skeleton and muscle interactions

26. Muscle tissue Muscle tissue
Consists of bundles of long cells called muscle fibers and is the most abundant tissue in most animals.
Skeletal muscle
Attached to bones by tendons and is responsible for voluntary movements of the body.
The arrangement of the contractile units along the length of muscle cells gives them a striped or striated appearance.
Cardiac muscle
Forms the contractile tissue of the heart.
It is striated like skeletal muscle, but its cells are branched, interconnecting at specialized junctions that rapidly relay the signal to contract from cell to cell during the heartbeat.
Smooth muscle
Gets its name from its lack of striations.
Type of muscle is found in the walls of the digestive tract, urinary bladder, arteries, and other internal organs.
The cells (fibers) are shaped like spindles. They contract more slowly than skeletal muscles, but they can sustain contractions for a longer period of time.

27. Muscle Tissue

28. Skeletal muscle
Skeletal muscle, which is attached to the skeleton and produces body movements, is made up of a hierarchy of smaller and smaller parallel strands.
A muscle consists of bundles of parallel muscle fibers, and each muscle fiber is a single cell with many nuclei.
Each muscle fiber is itself a bundle of smaller myofibrils.
A myofibril consists of repeating units called sarcomeres.
Skeletal muscle is called striated (striped) muscle because the sarcomeres produce alternating light and dark bands when viewed with a microscope.
Structurally, a sarcomere is the region between the two dark, narrow lines, called Z lines, in the myofibril.
Functionally, the sarcomere is the contractile apparatus in a myofibril— the muscle fiber’s fundamental unit of action.

30. Skeletal muscle Sarcomere
Composed of regular arrangements of two kinds of filaments:
Thin filament
Consists of two strands of the protein actin an two strands of a regulatory protein, coiled around each other.
Light bands at the edge of the sarcomere, within light band are the Z lines that consist of proteins that connect adjuacent thin filaments
Thick filament
Contains a staggered array of multiple strands of the protein myosin.
Broad, dark band centered in the sarcomere; they are interspersed with thin filaments that project toward the center of the sarcomere.
*The specific arrangement of repeating units of thin and thick filaments is directly related to the mechanics of muscle contraction.

31. Sarcomere

32. Sliding Filament Model
Sliding-Filament model of muscle contraction:
A sarcomere contracts (shortens) when its thin filaments slide across its thick filaments.
In a contracting sarcomere:
The Z lines and the thin filaments have moved toward the middle of the sarcomere.
When the muscle is fully contracted, the thin filaments overlap in the middle of the sarcomere.
Contraction only shortens the sarcomere; it does not change the lengths of the thick and thin filaments.
A whole muscle can shorten about 35% of its resting length when all its sarcomeres contract.
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34. Sliding Filament Model
What makes the thin filaments slide when a sarcomere contracts?
The key events are energy-consuming interactions between the myosin molecules of the thick filaments and the actin of the thin filaments.
Parts of the myosin, called heads, bind with specific sites on actin molecules located on the thin filaments.
In a muscle fiber at rest, these sites are covered by a regulatory protein complex of two molecules: tropomyosin and troponin
Stimulation by a motor neuron causes the binding sites to be exposed so that actin and myosis can interact.
Muscle contraction requires calcium ions (Ca2+) and energy (ATP) in order for thick and thin filaments to slide past each other.

35. Sliding Filament Model
Steps:
1. The binding sites on the actin molecule (to which myosin “heads” will locate) are blocked by a complex of two molecules: tropomyosin and troponin.
2.Prior to muscle contraction, ATP binds to the heads of the myosin molecules, priming them in an erect high energy state.
Arrival of an action potential causes a release of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
The Ca2+ binds to the troponin and causes the blocking molecules to move so that the myosin binding sites on the actin filament become exposed.
3.The heads of the cross-bridging myosin molecules attach to the binding sites on the actin filament.
Release of energy from the hydrolysis of ATP accompanies the cross bridge formation.

36. Sliding Filament Model
Steps (continued…)
4. The energy release from ATP hydrolysis causes a change in shape of the myosin cross bridge, resulting in a bending action (the power stroke).
This causes the actin filaments to slide past the myosin filaments towards the center of the sarcomere.
5.Fresh ATP attaches to the myosin molecules, releasing them from the binding sites and repriming them for a repeat movement. They become attached further along the actin chain (closer to the Z line) as long as ATP and Ca2+ are available.

37. Sliding Filament Model
This sequence—detach, extend, attach, pull—occurs again and again in a contracting muscle.
Though we are only looking at one myosin head in action, a typical thick filament has about 350 heads, each of which can bind and unbind to a thin filament about five times per second.
Some myosin heads hold the thin filaments in position, while others are reaching for new binding sites.
As long as sufficient ATP is present, the process continues until the muscle is fully contracted or until the signal to contract stops.

40. Animation ml