1. Operant conditioning More on reinforcement and beyond

2. extinction Occurs when reinforcement stops following the response Occurs when reinforcement stops following the response If you repeat a previously reinforced behavior but fail to receive reinforcement, eventually you will probably stop performing the action If you repeat a previously reinforced behavior but fail to receive reinforcement, eventually you will probably stop performing the action

3. Stimulus generalization Somewhat similar to classical conditioning Somewhat similar to classical conditioning If a certain response/behavior received reinforcement in a certain situation, you are likely to make the same response in a similar situation If a certain response/behavior received reinforcement in a certain situation, you are likely to make the same response in a similar situation

4. discrimination Some responses gain reinforcement, others don’t Some responses gain reinforcement, others don’t As you would expect, those that gain reinforcement will be much more likely to be repeated As you would expect, those that gain reinforcement will be much more likely to be repeated We learn to chose or discriminate between the two We learn to chose or discriminate between the two

5. Discriminative stimuli Any stimulus that provides an organism with a cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement Any stimulus that provides an organism with a cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement Stop signs Stop signs Warm smiles/ eye contact Warm smiles/ eye contact

6. Primary reinforcers Primary reinforcers these stand alone and, all things being equal, reinforce the behaviors that precede them because of their importance to the organism these stand alone and, all things being equal, reinforce the behaviors that precede them because of their importance to the organism For example: water, food, and comfort For example: water, food, and comfort

7. Secondary reinforcers Secondary reinforcers These must first be paired with unconditional reinforcers to prompt increases in behaviors These must first be paired with unconditional reinforcers to prompt increases in behaviors The most obvious example is money, which can help someone secure water, food, etc. The most obvious example is money, which can help someone secure water, food, etc.

8. Reinforcement schedules At the most basic level we have two different types of reinforcement schedules: At the most basic level we have two different types of reinforcement schedules: 1) Continuous, in which reinforcement follows every correct response, and 1) Continuous, in which reinforcement follows every correct response, and 2) Intermittent, in which only some correct responses are followed by reinforcement. 2) Intermittent, in which only some correct responses are followed by reinforcement.

9. Intermittent schedules Fixed ratio – provide reinforcement after only a fixed number of correct responses Fixed ratio – provide reinforcement after only a fixed number of correct responses Marked by a steady response rate Marked by a steady response rate If many responses are needed to secure reinforcement, a pause follows reinforcement If many responses are needed to secure reinforcement, a pause follows reinforcement

10. Variable ratio – reinforcement provided after a variable amount of responses Variable ratio – reinforcement provided after a variable amount of responses Marked by steady response rates Marked by steady response rates Playing slot machines, lotto, and many other types of gambling Playing slot machines, lotto, and many other types of gambling

11. Fixed interval – reinforcement delivered after a fixed amount of time Fixed interval – reinforcement delivered after a fixed amount of time Lots of responses right before reinforcement Lots of responses right before reinforcement

12. Variable interval – reinforcement delivered after a varying amount of time Variable interval – reinforcement delivered after a varying amount of time Responses are made at a slow and steady rate Responses are made at a slow and steady rate An astronomer looking for comets An astronomer looking for comets

13. The allure of intermittent reinforcement While behaviors continuously reinforced quickly succumb to extinction, While behaviors continuously reinforced quickly succumb to extinction, Behaviors which are intermittently reinforced are quite resistant to extinction Behaviors which are intermittently reinforced are quite resistant to extinction Lotto Lotto That unpredictable boyfriend/girlfriend That unpredictable boyfriend/girlfriend

14. Dollard & miller: beyond skinner Remember, Skinner was starving those poor pigeons and rats. Remember, Skinner was starving those poor pigeons and rats. Wasn’t he ignoring something? Wasn’t he ignoring something? Dollard and Miller, in the 50’s, thought so. Dollard and Miller, in the 50’s, thought so.

15. Dollard & miller ii A four step process: A four step process: 1) Drive – propels the organism into action, 1) Drive – propels the organism into action, 2) Cue – the guiding stimuli 2) Cue – the guiding stimuli the “how and where” of the response the “how and where” of the response 3) Response – the actual behavior, and 3) Response – the actual behavior, and 4) Reinforcement – reduces the drive 4) Reinforcement – reduces the drive

16. For example: A long trip on an interstate A long trip on an interstate 1) Drive – eventually, you get hungry 1) Drive – eventually, you get hungry 2) Cue – road signs advise of food ahead 2) Cue – road signs advise of food ahead 3) Response – you get off the highway and pull into the parking lot 3) Response – you get off the highway and pull into the parking lot 4) Reinforcement – you eat, satisfying your hunger 4) Reinforcement – you eat, satisfying your hunger

17. Observational learning Classical conditioning and operant conditioning don’t explain it all Classical conditioning and operant conditioning don’t explain it all Operant conditioning implies trial and error Operant conditioning implies trial and error Some behaviors are too dangerous to try and then see what happens Some behaviors are too dangerous to try and then see what happens We learn from the experiences of others We learn from the experiences of others

18. Bandura’s contribution Albert Bandura realized that Skinner’s framework was not sufficient Albert Bandura realized that Skinner’s framework was not sufficient He guessed that we learn from watching the behavior of others, not just enduring the consequences of our own He guessed that we learn from watching the behavior of others, not just enduring the consequences of our own

19. imitation Poor Bobo Poor Bobo If children watched an adult hammer him they were likely to do the same thing If children watched an adult hammer him they were likely to do the same thing Even repeating the exact words Even repeating the exact words If the adult spared the doll, all the children did also If the adult spared the doll, all the children did also

20. Vicarious consequences However, if the children watched the adult being disciplined for pounding the hapless bag of air, they didn’t rough him up However, if the children watched the adult being disciplined for pounding the hapless bag of air, they didn’t rough him up They had somehow vicariously experienced the adult’s punishment and the behavior never emerged They had somehow vicariously experienced the adult’s punishment and the behavior never emerged

21. Vicarious reinforcement Powerball winners Powerball winners Are they hidden? Are they hidden? No, they are celebrated No, they are celebrated We share in their triumph We share in their triumph We can’t wait for our chance We can’t wait for our chance How about all those who lost big? How about all those who lost big?

22. Encouraging moral behavior “Catch them when they are being good”? “Catch them when they are being good”? If we wait for it to emerge, and then reinforce it, we might wait a long time If we wait for it to emerge, and then reinforce it, we might wait a long time Moral behavior rarely occurs spontaneously Moral behavior rarely occurs spontaneously So, we teach it through ….. So, we teach it through …..

23. modeling We imitate those we view as: We imitate those we view as: 1) Powerful, 1) Powerful, 2) Successful, 2) Successful, 3) Similar to us, and 3) Similar to us, and 4) Warm/Kind. 4) Warm/Kind.

24. Modeling ii We find an individual or character who fits these criteria and then we show them displaying the desired quality We find an individual or character who fits these criteria and then we show them displaying the desired quality It might make an impression It might make an impression