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Revolutions in the Transatlantic World

2. Revolutions in the Transatlantic World
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Revolution in France
Wars of Independence in Latin America
Toward the Abolition of Slavery in the Transatlantic Economy

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Guerrilla Warfare
Guerrilla Warfare. Haitian slaves ambush French forces during their successful revolt led by Toussaint L’Ouverture and Jean-Jacques Dessalines in The Haitian revolution was the largest emancipation of slaves to occur in the eighteenth century. 3

4. Introduction World-transforming revolutions, 1776-1824
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World-transforming revolutions,
Interconnected
Americas established independence from European political control
French monarchy collapsed
Brought down Ancien Regime with it
Desire to create new governments based on Enlightenment principles
Opposition to slavery

5. Global Perspective: The Transatlantic Revolutions
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What is the relationship between the Enlightenment and the transatlantic revolutions? Between the Enlightenment and the crusade against slavery?
How did the transatlantic revolutions fundamentally alter the relationship between Europe and the Americas?

6. Global Perspective: The Transatlantic Revolutions (cont'd)
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What is the relationship between the transatlantic revolutions and nationalism? Why did such a relationship exist?

7. Revolution in France
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Revolution in France 7

8. France: Revolutions of 1789
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Estates General had three divisions
First Estate – clergy
Second Estate – nobility
Third Estate – everyone else
Voting by estate
Third Estate loses all votes 2:1

9. France: Revolutions of 1789 (cont’d)
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Third Estate declares itself the National Assembly
Tennis Court Oath
National Constituent Assembly

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Women’s March
Women’s March. The women of Paris marched to Versailles on October 7, The following day the royal family was forced to return to Paris with them. Henceforth, the French government would function under the constant threat of mob violence. Anonymous, 18th century, “To Versailles, to Versailles.” The Women of Paris going to Versailles, October 7, French, Musée de la Ville de Paris, Musée Carnavalet, Paris, France. Photograph copyright Bridgeman-Giraudon/Art Resource, New York. 10

11. Reconstruction of France
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Reorganization by National Constituent Assembly
Constitutional monarchy established
Unicameral Legislative Assembly
Women excluded from voting
Olympe de Gouges (d. 1793)
Declaration of the Rights of Women

12. Olympe de Gouges Issues a Declaration of the Rights of Woman
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Olympe de Gouges Issues a Declaration of the Rights of Woman
Olympe de Gouges Issues a Declaration of the Rights of Woman 12

13. Olympe de Gouges Issues a Declaration of the Rights of Woman
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Olympe de Gouges Issues a Declaration of the Rights of Woman
Olympe de Gouges Issues a Declaration of the Rights of Woman 13

14. Reconstruction of France (cont’d)
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Introduction of metric system
Civil Constitution of the Clergy
Louis XVI’s attempted escape, 1791

15. A Second Revolution Revolution becomes much more radical in 1791
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Revolution becomes much more radical in 1791
Jacobins
Girondists
War on Austria declared in 1792
Constitutional monarchy overthrown
Republic established
Convention, 1792
Louis XVI executed January 21, 1793

16. Execution of Louis XVI 04/28/11
Execution of Louis XVI. On January 21, 1793, the Convention executed Louis XVI. Execution of Louis XVI. Aquatint. French, 18th century. Musée de la Ville de Paris, Musée Carnavalet, Paris, France. Giraudon/Art Resource, New York. 16

17. Chronology: The French Revolution
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Chronology: The French Revolution
Chronology: The French Revolution 17

18. Reign of Terror Period of quasi-judicial executions
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Period of quasi-judicial executions
Autumn of 1793 to summer of 1794
Committee of Public Safety – 1793
Almost dictatorial power
Fully democratic convention, but suspended
Levée en masse

19. Reign of Terror (cont’d)
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Society of Revolutionary Republican Women
All women’s clubs eventually banned
Execution of Olympe de Gouges, 1793

20. Republic of Virtue Republic in which civic virtue might flourish
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Republic in which civic virtue might flourish
Policy of de-Christianization
Cathedral of Notre Dame – Temple of Reason
Maximilien Robespierre ( )
Key figure in Reign of Terror
For him the Republic of Virtue meant renunciation of selfish gains from political life
Execution of Marie Antoinette, 1793
Cult of the Supreme Being

21. Revolutionary Calendar
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Revolutionary Calendar
Revolutionary Calendar. To symbolize the beginning of a new era in human history, French revolutionary legislators established a new calendar. This calendar for Year Two (1794) proclaims the indivisible unity of the revolution and the goals of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity. 21

22. Thermidorian Reaction
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Robespierre executed July 28, 1794
Sensed that the revolution had become too radical
Reign of Terror ended
Claimed 40,000 victims
Machinery of terror destroyed
Paris Jacobin Club closed

23. Thermidorian Reaction (cont’d)
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New Constitution
Conservative
Directory – new executive body
Council of Elders – new legislative body

24. Napoleonic Era Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) Consulate (1799-1804)
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Napoleon Bonaparte ( )
Corsican origins
Campaigns in Italy and Egypt
Overthrow of Directory, 1799
Consulate ( )
Concordat with Pope Pius VII, 1801
Napoleonic Code, 1804
Child of Enlightenment or dictator?

25. 04/28/11
Napoleon
Napoleon. In December 1799 Napoleon seized power and established himself as First Consul. The title of “Consul” came from the ancient Roman Republic; by Napoleon would assume the title of “Emperor” as the French Republic gave way to the Napoleonic Empire. The simplicity of this modest military dress as First Consul also gave way to flowing imperial robes. 25

26. Napoleon’s Empire Crowned emperor of France in 1804
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Crowned emperor of France in 1804
Napoleon conquered most of Europe
Changed map of Europe
Ended Old Regime
Battle of Trafalgar, 1805
Battle of Austerlitz, 1805

27. Napoleon’s Empire (cont’d)
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Economic warfare with the British
Berlin Decrees, 1806
Milan Decree, 1807

28. Map 22–2. Napoleonic Europe in late 1812
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Map 22–2. Napoleonic Europe in late 1812
Map 22–2. Napoleonic Europe in late By mid-1812 the areas shown in peach were incorporated into France, and most of the rest of Europe was directly controlled by or allied with Napoleon. But Russia had withdrawn from the failing Continental System, and the decline of Napoleon was about to begin. 28

29. William Pitt and Napoleon
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William Pitt and Napoleon
William Pitt and Napoleon. In this early nineteenth-century cartoon, England, personified by a caricature of William Pitt, and France, personified by a caricature of Napoleon, are carving out their areas of interest around the globe. 29

30. Wars of Liberation Napoleon invades Spain in 1807
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Napoleon invades Spain in 1807
Places brother Joseph on throne
Spanish respond with guerilla warfare
French are vulnerable to this approach
Long Spanish campaign drained French

31. Francisco de Goya, The Third of May, 1808
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Francisco de Goya, The Third of May, 1808
Francisco de Goya, The Third of May, 1808, 1814–1815. Napoleon sent troops into Spain in 1807 after the king of Spain had agreed to aid France against Portugal, which was assisting Britain. By early 1808 Spain had essentially become an occupied nation. On May 2 riots took place in Madrid between French troops and Spanish civilians. In response to the riots, the French marshall Joachim Murat ordered numerous executions, especially of artisans and clergy, during the night of May 2 and 3. Francisco de Goya, “Los fusilamientos del 3 de Mayo, 1808,” Oil on canvas, 8´60 × 11´40. © Museo Nacional Del Prado, Madrid. 31

32. Wars of Liberation (cont’d)
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Rest of Europe inspired by French trouble
Russians stand up to Napoleon
Disastrous Russian campaign, 1812
Battle of Leipzig, 1813

33. Chronology: Napoleonic Europe
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Chronology: Napoleonic Europe
Chronology: Napoleonic Europe 33

34. Congress of Vienna Viscount Castlereagh (1769-1822) Quadruple Alliance
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Viscount Castlereagh ( )
British foreign secretary
Key person in achieving eventual agreement
Quadruple Alliance
Britain, Austria, Russia, Prussia
Formed to preserve settlement

35. Congress of Vienna (cont’d)
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Agreement that no single power should dominate Europe
Constructed series of states to block French expansion
Holy Roman Empire not revived
Established the rule of legitimate monarchs
Rejected hint of republican politics

36. Congress of Vienna (cont’d)
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Quadruple Alliance, 1815
France restored as fifth power
Little desire to punish a defeated France
Determined to prevent outbreak of future war
Helped prevent major European war until 1914

37. Map 22–3 Europe 1815, after the Congress of Vienna
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Map 22–3 Europe 1815, after the Congress of Vienna
Map 22–3 Europe 1815, after the Congress of Vienna. The Congress of Vienna achieved the post-Napoleonic territorial adjustments shown on the map. The most notable arrangements dealt with areas along France’s borders (the Netherlands, Prussia, Switzerland, and Piedmont) and in Poland and northern Italy. 37

38. Wars of Independence in Latin America
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Wars of Independence in Latin America 38

39. Latin America Spain one of defeated powers in 1763
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Spain one of defeated powers in 1763
Charles III ( )
Convinced American colonial system had to be changed
Abolished monopolies of Seville and Cadiz
Opened more South American and Caribbean ports to trade
Attempted to make tax collection more fair

40. Latin America (cont’d)
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Returned colonies to direct Spanish control

41. First Movements Haiti achieved independence in 1804
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Haiti achieved independence in 1804
Slave revolt led by Toussaint L’Ouverture ( )
Jean-Jacques Dessalines ( )
Popular uprising
Great exception in Latin America

42. Toussaint L’Ouverture
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Toussaint L’Ouverture
Toussaint L’Ouverture. L’Ouverture (1744–1803) began the revolt that led to Haitian independence in 1804. 42

43. First Movements (cont’d)
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Movement for independence usually led by
Creole elite
Merchants, landowners, professional people

44. 04/28/11
A Free Person of Color from St. Domingue Demands Recognition of His Status
A Free Person of Color from St. Domingue Demands Recognition of His Status 44

45. Creole Goals
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Creoles determined that political independence should not cause
Social disruption
Loss of their social and economic privileges
Few Indians, blacks, mestizos, mulattos, or slaves involved in movements

46. Creole Goals (cont’d) Few benefited from end of Iberian rule
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Few benefited from end of Iberian rule
Transforming events
Napoleon toppling Portuguese (1807) and Spanish (1808) monarchies

47. Map 22–4 The Independence Campaigns of San Martín and Bolívar
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Map 22–4 The Independence Campaigns of San Martín and Bolívar
Map 22–4 The Independence Campaigns of San Martín and Bolívar. José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar fought for independence in different parts of South America in the early 1800s. In 1822 they collaborated to liberate Quito, but they disagreed over post-independence political structures: San Martín was a monarchist, while Bolívar was a republican. 47

48. San Martín in Río de la Plata
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First region to assert independence
Río de la Plata (Argentina)
Ruling junta pushes for independence elsewhere
José de San Martín ( )
Leads troops across Andes
Occupied Santiago, Chile, by 1817
Bernardo O’Higgins ( ) made supreme leader of Chile

49. San Martín in Río de la Plata (cont’d)
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San Martín
Control of Peru in 1821

50. Simón Bolívar (1783-1830) Similar process of liberation in the north
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Similar process of liberation in the north
Civil war in Venezuela ( )
Bolivar invaded Venezuelan again in 1816
Named president in 1821
Meeting with San Martín in 1822
Disagreements on future of Latin America
San Martín: monarchies; Bolívar: republics

51. 04/28/11
Simón Bolívar
Simón Bolívar. Bolívar was the liberator of much of Latin America. He inclined toward a policy of political liberalism. 51

52. Simón Bolívar (1783-1830 (cont’d)
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Battle of Ayacucho, 1824
Spanish royalist forces lose

53. Independence in New Spain
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Drive for independence in New Spain
Represented conservative nature of elites
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla ( )
Creole priest who issued a call for rebellion
Leader of 80,000 unorganized troops
Captured and executed in 1811

54. Independence in New Spain (cont’d)
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Threat posed by liberal constitution in Spain
Agustín de Iturbide ( )
Declared Mexico independent in 1821

55. Brazilian Independence
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Came simply and peacefully
Prince regent Joao ( )
Made Brazil a kingdom in 1815
No longer merely a colony

56. Brazilian Independence
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Joao’s son Pedro as regent ( )
Pedro embraced Brazilian independence
Brazil became independent, 1822
Pedro as first emperor
Support of proslavery elite

57. Chronology: The Wars of Latin American Independence
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Chronology: The Wars of Latin American Independence
Chronology: The Wars of Latin American Independence 57

58. Toward the Abolition of Slavery in the Transatlantic Economy
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Toward the Abolition of Slavery in the Transatlantic Economy 58

59. Origins of Abolition Movement
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In 1750, few questioned slavery
By 1888, slavery no longer existed in transatlantic economy
Abolition – legacy of Enlightenment, revolutions
Crusade originated among religious writers
Initial opposition among English Quakers

60. Origins of Abolition Movement (cont’d)
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Adam Smith’s philosophy
Undermined economic defense of slave labor
William Wilberforce

61. Abolitionism in the Americas
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Some slaves took matter into own hands
Largest emancipation – Haiti
Slave revolt of 1794
Revolt and independence of Haiti
American Congress made slave trading a capital offense in 1824

62. Map 22–5 The Haitian Revolution
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Map 22–5 The Haitian Revolution
Map 22–5 The Haitian Revolution 62

63. Abolition British formed Abolition Society in 1823 Slavery banned by
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British formed Abolition Society in 1823
Slavery banned by
British, 1833
Portuguese, 1836
Swedes, 1847
Danes, 1848
Dutch, 1863

64. Abolition (cont’d) British established Sierra Leone in 1787
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British established Sierra Leone in 1787
Liberia established in 1817
Efforts of American Colonization Society

65. 04/28/11
Spanish Slave Ship
Spanish Slave Ship. After 1807 the British Royal Navy patrolled the West African coast attempting to intercept slave-trading ships. In 1846 the British ship HMS Albatross captured a Spanish slave ship, the Albanoz, and freed the slaves. A British officer depicted the appalling conditions in the slavehold in this watercolor. 65

66. Review Questions
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How was the Estates General transformed into the National Assembly? How does the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen reflect the social and political values of the eighteenth-century Enlightenment? What were the chief ways in which France and its government were reorganized in the early years of the revolution?

67. Review Questions
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What was the revolution of 1792, and why did it occur? What were the causes of the Reign of Terror, and what political coalitions made it possible?

68. Review Questions
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How did Napoleon rise to power? What were his major domestic achievements? Did his rule more nearly fulfill or betray the ideals of the French Revolution?

69. Review Questions
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What were the results of the Napoleonic Wars? Why did Napoleon decide to invade Russia? Why did he fail? What were the major outlines of the peace settlement achieved by the Congress of Vienna?

70. Review Questions
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How was the Haitian Revolution influenced by the French Revolution? How did the Haitian Revolution influence other revolutionary movements in the Americas? How did it influence conservative movements in the Americas?

71. Review Questions
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What political changes took place in Latin America in the twenty years between and 1824? What were the main reasons for Creole discontent with Spanish rule?

72. Review Questions
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A motto of the French Revolution was “liberty, equality, and fraternity.” How might one compare the American Revolution, the French Revolution, and the Latin American wars of independence in regard to the achievement of these goals? Which groups in each country or region benefited from the revolution, and which gained little or nothing from the changes?

73. Review Questions
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What intellectual and religious factors contributed to the rise of the antislavery movement? To what extent did nonhumanitarian forces contribute to it? What opposition did it meet? Why did slavery receive a new lease on life during the same years that the antislavery movement emerged?

74. Review Questions
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What, if any, advances did women make as a result of these revolutions in the transatlantic world? Which groups tended to benefit most, and which least, from the events discussed in this chapter?