1. AP Biology Exam Review 2003-2004
Heredity and Evolution – 25%

2. Heredity and Evolution
Molecular Genetics – 9%
Evolutionary Biology – 8%

3. Heredity Meiosis and gametogenesis Eukaryotic chromosomes
Inheritance patterns

4. Asexual vs. Sexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction: binary fission, regeneration, vegetative propagation, budding
Sexual reproduction: result of gametic fusion, gametes formed from meiosis, promotes genetic recombination (variety)
Meiosis: process of gametic nuclear transfer

5. Sexual life cycles
Remember: Asexual life cycles do not require the fusion (fertilization) of sperm and egg.

6. Meiosis overview
Each “normal” 2N (diploid) cell has 2 sets of chromosomes, one from each gamete.
Gametogenesis: specialized cells (spermatocyte, oocyte) undergoing meiosis to produce gametes with some combination of the 2 chromosome sets

7. Important vocabulary
Homologous chromosomes: pair of like chromosomes, having similar length, centromere position, gene loci
Linkage group: genes that are linked on the same chromosome (linked loci)
Locus (pl. loci): site on chromosome where gene is located on the chromosome

8. Meiosis

9. Meiosis

10. Crossing over
Genetic variation in meiosis result of crossing over when chromosomes aligned in tetrad formation
Breaks linkage groups (genes found on the same chromosome)

11. Oogenesis

12. Spermatogenesis

13. Pine life cycle

14. Eukaryotic chromosome
Allele: alternative form of the same genes
Chromosome: condensed double helix (DNA)

15. Eukaryotic DNA packing
Nucleosomes: “beads on a string” (beads = histones)
Chromatin: condensed nucleosomes
Looped chromatin on protein scaffolding
Chromosomes

16. Mendel’s work Law of independent assortment Law of segregation
Dominant vs. recessive phenotype
Used peas because of fast generations, easily recognizable characteristics, two alleles

17. Inheritance patterns
Mendelian inheritance: AA & Aa = dominant phenotype; aa = recessive phenotype
Codominance: Aa = shows both A and a equally

18. Incomplete dominance Intermediate inheritance AA = dominant
Aa = half way between AA and aa
aa = recessive phenotype

19. Inheritance patterns Hybrid: mixed genes between two species
Pleiotropy: ability of one gene to affect many different genes

20. Epistasis
Expression of one gene determines the expression of another gene

21. Polygenic inheritance
Many genes affecting a phenotype
Leading to many possible phenotypes of a trait

22. Multiple alleles

23. Test cross
If Mendelian inheritance, AA and Aa genotypes are indistinguishable.
Crossing dominant phenotype with aa. 100% dominant = PP; 1:1 = Pp

24. Sex-linked
Sex-linked: gene loci on sex chromosome (X or Y) Ex: hemophilia, color blindness
First discovered in 1910 by Thomas Hunt Morgan
Autosomal: gene loci on non-sex chromosome

25. Sex linkage
Look for inheritance patterns that deviate from 3:1 or 1:1.
Also look for disorders affecting mostly males.

26. Recombination frequencies

27. X-inactivation & Barr bodies

28. Nondisjunction

29. Nondisjunction disorders

30. Human pedigrees
Square = male
Circle = female
Colored in = affected

31. Molecular Genetics – 9% RNA and DNA structure and function
Gene regulation
Mutation
Viral structure and replication
Nucleic acid technology and application

32. DNA structure
Nucleotide: nitrogen base, deoxyribose sugar, phosphate group
Nitrogen bases: adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine
Joined 5’ – 3’ (phosphodiester bonds)
Sugar-phosphate backbone

33. RNA structure Nucleotide: nitrogen base, ribose, phosphate group
Nitrogen bases: uracil, adenine, guanine, cytosine
Single stranded
Joined 5’-3’
In eukaryotes: RNA produced in nucleolus of nucleus.
tRNA, rRNA, mRNA

34. Griffith experiment
Avery did a follow-up experiment and coined “transformation.”

35. Phage

36. Hershey and Chase

37. DNA replication models

38. Meselson and Stahl

39. Origin of replication

40. DNA elongation

41. DNA synthesis Leading strand: made continuously
Lagging strand: Okazaki fragments

42. DNA priming
Necessary for starting DNA synthesis

43. Okazaki fragments

44. Telomeres
Necessary to preserve DNA through successive rounds of DNA replication

45. Controlling gene expression
Gene expression = transcription
RNA transcript is translated into amino acid polymer.
Operons are examples of prokaryotic gene expression control.
Methylation is an example of eukaryotic gene expression control.

46. One enzyme, one protein (controlling gene expression)
Beadle and Tatum

47. Overview Transcription: DNA  RNA
Translation: RNA  amino acid polymer (peptide)

48. Transcription
Initiation
Elongation
Termination

49. DNA  RNA
A  U
T  A
C  G
G  C

50. RNA processing
Removing introns that interrupt the express-able code (exons)
Also adding poly-A tail and 5’-CAP

51. tRNA tRNA “charged” with amino acid
“assists” ribosomes with protein synthesis

52. Translation - initiation

53. Translation - elongation

54. Translation - termination

55. Point mutation
Codon can be mutate due to substitution.

56. Insertion & deletion Frameshift mutation
Mutation: spontaneously occurs; basis of variation in populations

57. Viral reproduction Lytic vs. lysogenic life cycle
Viruses are not cells.
Viruses are particles of nucleic material and protein that requires host cells for reproduction.
Bacteriophage: viruses that infect bacteria

58. Lytic life cycle

59. Lysogenic life cycle

60. HIV Retrovirus RNA nucleic acid
Requires reverse transcriptase enzyme (RNA  DNA)

61. Bacterial replication

62. Using recombinant bacteria

63. Transduction

64. Plasmid biotechnology

65. Recombinant DNA
Restriction enzymes cut host DNA and “gene of interest”
Sticky ends complementary (match), enabling recombination

66. Genomic library
Having multiple copies of DNA or phage

67. PCR Polymerase chain reaction: heat, cool, add primer
Forms cDNA (clonal DNA) library

68. Gel electrophoresis

69. RFLP: cut sites in junk DNA
Restriction fragment length polymorphism

70. Southern blotting

71. Sanger
Method to deduce the DNA sequence that is unknown

72. Gene therapy

73. Phage as a vector
Transduction: using virus as a means to transport eukaryotic gene into bacteria