1. Sport & the Individual AGGRESSION IN SPORT
SPORT PSYCHOLOGY
Sport & the Individual
AGGRESSION IN SPORT

2. Aggressive Behaviour Zinedine Zidane headbutts Marco Materazzi (2006)
Mike Tyson bites off Evander Holyfield’s ear (1997)
John McEnroe swears at the umpire (1981)

3. Defining Aggression Hostile aggression Intent is to harm
Normally an emotion (anger)
Instrumental aggression
Means to an end

4. Assertiveness John Silva (1980)
goal directed – it aims for a particular purpose
not intended to harm
using only legitimate force (within the rules of the game)
not breaking the agreed rules of the sport (eg. Marquis of Queensbury)

5. Studying Behaviour Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) Studied saliva in dogs
FOOD + BELL  dog salivates
BELL only  salivation
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Power of association

6. Behaviourism Pavlov’s ideas inspired BEHAVIOURISM
Theory that behaviour can be understood without recourse to mind
Focus on observed behaviour, not invisible cognitions
Very influential in middle of 20th century

7. Operant Conditioning B F Skinner (1904-90) developed Pavlov’s ideas
The Skinner Box
Positive Reinforcement – introduce food
Negative Reinforcement – remove electric shock
Conditioned response – press lever

9. Conditioning & Aggression
PAVLOV – aggressive behaviour is associated with a cue
Alcohol? Punk music? Crystal Palace fans?
SKINNER – aggressive behaviour has been reinforced in the past
By success? excitement? attention?

10. Social Learning
In the 1970s, Albert Bandura developed these ideas further with Social Learning Theory (S.L.T.)
Vicarious Learning
We can learn complex behaviour from role models
Especially aggression
1961 “bashing Bobo” experiment

11. Social Learning through TV
In 1965 Bandura replicated his 1961 study
The role model was a boy (Rocky) who attacked Bobo on TV
3 conditions – different endings
(1) Rocky is rewarded
(2) Rocky is punished
(3) No reaction to Rocky

12. Social Learning through TV 2
Children imitated Rocky in condition 1 and 3
Less imitation in condition 2
Bandura then rewarded children for imitating
Everyone imitated
 children learn from TV even when they don’t imitate!

13. Criticisms Not all aggressive behaviour is cued or reinforced
In fact, a lot of it is frowned on
Parents, teachers & coaches all punish aggression
Most role models are NON-aggressive
A more sophisticated explanation is needed

14. FRUSTRATION-AGGRESSION 1
The Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
Developed by John Dollard (1939)
Aggression is normal response to frustration
Frustration occurs when a conditioned response is withheld
EG your serve goes into the net

15. FRUSTRATION-AGGRESSION 2
Neal Miller (1941) was one of Dollard’s associates
Found Dollard’s theory too extreme
Does frustration ALWAYS produce aggression?
What about cognitions?
Close to achieving goal (eg falling in the final lap)
Frustration is caused deliberately (eg being tripped)
Frustration seems arbitrary or unfair (eg a bad line-call)

16. FRUSTRATION-AGGRESSION 3
How can we MEASURE aggression to test these theories out?
Donnerstein & Wilson (1976)
P’s can give electric shocks to “test subjects” who make mistakes (actually confederates, faking shocks)
In one condition, test subjects are rude/abusive
Angry P’s give more shocks!

17. The “Instinct” Theory A different approach Aggression is innate
Freud said aggression was “inborn drive, similar to sex or hunger”
Acting out aggression cleanses us – removes stress and tension
Catharsis

18. The “Instinct” Theory 2 Difficult to measure instinctual aggression
(it’s unconscious)
Inkblot tests?
Observations?
Leonard Berkowitz (1972) questions this idea
Surely watching violence makes us MORE violent, not less?

19. Testing Catharsis Robert Arms et al (1979)
Some participants watch ice hockey & wrestling
Control group watches swimming
Compare self-reports of hostility at the end
Audience of violent sport is more aggressive
(aggressive emotions  not behaviour!)

20. Summing Up 1 Aggression may be a learned response
Pavlov… Skinner… Bandura
Or a learned response to frustration
Dollard… Miller
Alternatively, it may be an instinct that needs to be expressed
Freud

21. Summing Up 2 Learning theory of aggression – very useful
Suggests strategies for controlling aggression
But ignores personality, disposition
Ignores motivation (hostile vs instrumental aggression)
Determinist

22. Summing Up 3 Instinct theory of aggression – less useful
No clear strategies for controlling aggression (psychoanalysis?)
Personality screening?
Focus on motivation (hostile vs instrumental aggression)
Less determinist (willpower, self-restraint)

23. Managing Aggression 1
Raymond Novaco (1975) argues (like Freud) that aggression is useful, but often inappropriate
Novaco Anger Inventory – psychometric test to measure appropriate aggression
Likert scale (SA, A, NAND, D, SD)
You are talking to someone and they don’t answer you
You are trying to concentrate, but someone is tapping their foot

24. Managing Aggression 2 Raymond Novaco (1975) developed Anger Management
Based on Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)
Changing thinking  changed behaviour
Theory: aggression is over compensation for problems in relationships  displaced onto wrong targets
Solution: identify problems, teach new ways of handling them

25. Managing Aggression 3 SELF-INSTRUCTIONAL TRAINING
Come up with self-statements  make them less negative
Relaxation techniques
Assertiveness training
ROLE PLAYING
Taking the role of the victim
Practising different ways of handling conflict

26. Does it work? John Brunelle et al (1999)
57 male footballers (age 18-28)
3 conditions for anger management during weekly practice session:
role-play (live demonstration, act out responses)
anger awareness (discussion, journals)
Control (no intervention)
Observation & self reports over 15 matches
role-play had least aggression, followed by anger awareness