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From Termination to Self- Determination, 1950s-1970s Termination Urbanization and Relocation Resistance “Self-Determination”

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Presentation on theme: "From Termination to Self- Determination, 1950s-1970s Termination Urbanization and Relocation Resistance “Self-Determination”"— Presentation transcript:

1 From Termination to Self- Determination, 1950s-1970s Termination Urbanization and Relocation Resistance “Self-Determination”

2 Significance of the War First time away from home Multi-tribal (commonalities) White world (racism & “the system”) Honor and service Education/poverty Post-war political activism

3 National Congress of American Indians WWII experiences & boarding schools New awareness of common needs, national organizations Legacy of SAI (ended 1925) 1944 Denver, CO Collective political action Community support

4 NCAI leaders & agenda Joseph Garry (Couer d’Alene) Ruth Muskrat Bronson (Cherokee) D’Arcy McNickle (Salish-Kootenai) Archie Phinney (Nez Perce) Charlie Heacock (Lakota) Voting rights, legal aid, education, health, sovereignty, political lobbying, land rights

5 D’Arcy McNickle Salish Kootenai Author, activist, scholar, leader NCAI National Indian Youth Council

6 Indian Claims Commission Created in 1946 Compensation for land losses & broken treaties End federal relations with Native people “get out of the Indian business”

7 I.C.C., 1946… Present evidence, costs, etc. I.C.C. ruled and offered $ award, not land End trust relationship Congress extended ICC until 1978 Awarded nearly $880 million Strings attached

8 Larger Awards… Utes$32 million California tribes$29 million Chiricahua $16 million N. Paiutes $16 million Cheyenne Arapaho $15 million OK. Cherokee $14.3 million Crows$10.2 million Mescalero $8.5 million

9 “Termination” Post-War shift in Indian policy End federal trust relationship Environment of post-war conservatism & Cold War fears Dissolve reservations Assimilate land and culture Borrowed rhetoric from Civil Rights Mvmt

10 1953: House Concurrent Resolution 108 Characteristics -Acculturation -Economy -Stance on Termination -Stance of state Three Categories -Immediate Termination -10 year “probation” -Indefinite

11 Targeted Specific Tribes (over 100) Klamath Menominee Flathead Hupas Osages Potawatomis Iroquois California Mission Indians

12 Dimensions of Termination Public Law 280 1953 Jurisdiction to states MN, CA, NE, OR, WI Criminal and Civil Closed boarding schools Public Health Service, Indian Health Service

13 Reactions to Termination NCAI gained importance Native communities struggled with ICC Opposed Termination Other stuff: voting rights, dams, flooding, mining, Hopi-Navajo, etc… Increased activism by early 1960s Termination backfired…..

14 Urbanization Indians lived in urban situations before Movement to cities increased in 1940s War industries and service in military Economic/employment options Education and technical training Blue collar jobs, discrimination, housing

15 RelocationPrograms Part of Termination 1951: Branch of Placement & Relocation Employment, training, bus tickets, housing Chicago, L.A., Denver, Dallas, Salt Lake 1960: 30% Natives in urban areas

16 “Urban Indians” Racism & poverty Public Schools Adaptations: Community centers Pow-wows “Multi-tribalism”

17 Families in the city DenverCleveland

18 Gendered Urbanization HousewivesHair Salons

19 Significance of urbanization Wage labor Last hired, first fired Cash and mobility Frequent returns to reservation Anonymity and anomie Mainstream education Association with other minorities Activism & civil rights

20 Urban Communities Albuquerque Laguna ColonyPhoenix Indian Community Urban-Rez Dichotomy Countering Colonization Migrations & movement over homelands Adaptation and resistance “The Urban Indian” Maintenance of culture & traditions, relations with local and rez community Political leadership and non- reservation groups “Alternative Sovereignties” TO, Akimael, Maricopa Post WWII & Cold War Relocation transfer station Phoenix Indian Center, HIS, Phx Indian School, ASU, Great Society Programs Women as community builders and political activists, tribal leaders Double/triple oppressions Ana Moore Shaw Feminists?

21 Towards Self-determination Termination sparked anger and resistance Consciousness and action Urbanization and Relocation increased multi-tribal communication “The 1960s” Youth radicalized & created organizations that critiqued feds AND NCAI

22 National Indian Youth Council 1961 Gallup, NM Alfonso Ortiz and D’Arcy McNickle Youth leadership Clyde Warrior (Ponca) Shirly H. Witt Hank Adams

23 Emerging Challenges Sovereignty and land rights Treaty law Direct Action Tie the urban groups to reservation-based struggles American history, colonialism, global power movements

24 Vine Deloria, Jr. Standing Rock NCAI President Lawyer, Ph.D., MA Divinity, 35 books Custer Died for Your Sins, 1969 Treaties & Self- Determination

25 OCCUPATION OF ALCATRAZ ISLAND 1969-1971

26 Indian Center Burned down Misunderstood Treaty Occupied the vacant federal property Treaty rights, sovereignty, racism, education, cultural and religious freedom Indian Land Twenty Points

27

28 Significance of Alcatraz Treaties “Modern Activism” National Media Consciousness Direct Action No BIA Shaped a Generation

29 The American Indian Movement 1968 established Minneapolis Urban poverty Police/Racism Black Panthers Direct Action Militant rhetoric Male oriented

30 TRAIL OF BROKEN TREATIES AND OCCUPATION OF BIA 1972-73

31 STAND-OFF AT WOUNDED KNEE Pine Ridge, SD, 1974

32 Additional turning points Return of Taos Blue LakeAda Deer and the Menominee

33 Legacies and Significance “Modern Activism” reflected era Youth, generations: traditional and urban Treaties/sovereignty Identity/“rediscovery of history” Changed federal policies 1975 Indian Ed & Self-Determination Act Economic development, ed, health, politics

34 Conclusions Activism fueled new policies, but Indian gov’ts remained dependent on the fed ◦ ICRA, 1968 ◦ NAGPRA, 1991 ◦ ICWA Grants, appropriations, etc., failed to truly stimulate reservation economies Youth and reservation brain drain Rise of recognition and competition for grants, $, resources Diversity across Indian Nations re: $, culture, political structure, tactics, goals and interests Health and environmental issues, uranium, alcohol Language revitalization programs and some positive moves towards economic independence

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