1. CH.14 - THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

2.  It is the beginning of a great intellectual transformation that leads to the modern world  Concurrent with other major events  Copernicus is making discoveries at the time of the religious wars are breaking out in Europe  by the end of the Revolution Europe is about to embark on the Enlightenment, a cultural movement that largely rejected religion. WHAT IS THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION?

3.  Scientists seek to understand HOW things happen  intent is to use science to “prove” God exists  earliest Scientists are usually priests/monks  earliest Scientists are astronomers  easy access  spiritually significant  Aristotle  dominates how world is thought to work  world at rest, motion caused by angels  Ptolemy  astronomy based on Aristotle  astronomy with perfect circles for planetary motion  cycles and epicycles  crystalline spheres fix each planet’s movement  earth at center & sun orbits earth HOW THINGS STOOD BEFORE THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

4.  Belief in magic was widespread  While most educated people professed not to believe, many still held charms, like Queen Elizabeth’s magic ring to ward off the plague  Magic was viewed as being either good (tied to the church) or bad  alternative was natural magic  astrology  alchemy. MAGICAL THOUGHT

5.  Trade and Expansion of Trade  navigational problems generated research  Medieval Universities  study of Plato, Aristotle, Ptolemy and Democritus were essential  The Renaissance  value of mathematics  Humanism. CAUSES OF THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

6.  Logic over faith: religion no longer the only possible explanation for events  Observe, experiment & publish  Verifiable: Use of mathematics to prove a point  Money: Patronage  Questioning: discrepancy between observation and expectations springboards into a search for truth PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

7.  Astronomers: Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo  Scientific Method: Bacon, Descartes  Synthesis: Newton SCIENTIFIC METHOD 1.Ask a Question 2.Do Background Research 3.Construct a Hypothesis 4.Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment 5.Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion MAIN SCIENTISTS

8.  Polish priest studied in Italy  returns to Poland and works on Astronomy  writes De Revolutionibus Orbitum Coelestitum (On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres)  Earth is just another planet with a 24 hour rotation  retains circular planetary motion (perfection of the sphere). NICHOLAS COPERNICUS (1473-1543)

9.  Student of mathematics and astronomy  studied with Tycho Brahe  tested hypothesis after hypothesis until he determined that planets move in ellipses  Three Laws of Planetary Motion 1planets move in ellipses with sun as one focus 2velocity of a planet is not uniform 3equal area of the plane is covered in equal time by the planets. JOHANNES KEPLER (1571-1630)

10.  Astronomy  used a telescope, proved the heavens are not perfect (craters on moon)  supported Heliocentric system  Laws of Motion  dropping weights from the Tower of Pisa  imagined motion without constraint!!!!  Thought of inertia  Problems with the church  argues for separation of science and theology because we are endowed with reason  1633 banned by Church and house arrest  must recant heliocentric system to save neck. GALILEO GALILEI (1564-1642)

11.  Italy and Spain clamped down.  More freedom in France, England and Holland.  University of Padua was under Venice, the most anti-clerical state in Europe; Copernicus, Galileo and Harvey studied there  Protestants as hostile as Catholics on Biblical grounds, less state control in Protestant nations and in the end Protestant nations become more liberal than at first. REACTIONS TO GALILEO

12.  math/physics/astronomy  author of Principia Mathematica in 1687  bringing together Galileo’s discoveries about motion on Earth and Kepler’s discoveries in the heavens  explained heavenly motion that was tied to observed motion on Earth.  Provided a synthesis superior to Aristotle  notion of inertia - only have to explain change  Newton’s work led to a new branch of mathematics called calculus  Three Laws of Motion ISAAC NEWTON (1642-1727)

13.  Proposed INDUCTION  make a lot of observations then generalize rules of nature - this leads to scientific observation as a method  Promoted the modern idea of progress because he wanted application of science  Problem of Induction  there is no logical reason to go argue from any amount of experience to a general law. FRANCIS BACON (1561-1626)

14.  Great mathematician - showed that any algebraic equation could be plotted on a graph  In this manner he linked Greek with Hindu and Arabic knowledge  Also looked at DEDUCTION - go from a theory to the facts  Only wants what is absolute “Cogito ergo sum” I think therefore I am  leads to proof of God. RENE DESCARTES (1596-1650)

15.  Medical firsts:  First accurate and detailed study of human anatomy  First use of stitches  First description of the circulatory system  First microscope OTHER SCIENTIFIC ADVANCES

16.  The Scientific Revolution led to the Age of Enlightenment and a growing belief in human progress  Social impact  rich get richer  not much immediate direct change for peasants  widens intellectual gap  effect on navigation, map making and artillery  Science has innumerable social effects over time: new guns, bigger armies, more taxes, social discontent.  Guns lead to European colonialism (more accurate cannon fire)  new way of observing the world. VI. EFFECTS OF REVOLUTION

18. SOCIETY AND THE REVOLUTION IN THOUGHT

19.  Middle Ages convicted witches do heavy penance since they were misguided  View changes over time  By Renaissance people began to believe that witches actually flew and ate babies  witches must have committed a pact with the devil of their own free will  Major witch hunts occur during the century from 1560 to 1660 (slowly peters out after)  Crosses the Atlantic to Salem Massachusetts in 1692  Witch hunts arise in areas experiencing religious conflict  Occurs in areas both Protestant and Catholic.  60,000 executed, mostly women. WITCHCRAFT AND THE WITCH HUNTS

20. EXAMINATION OF A WITCH

21. THOMAS HOBBES (1588–1679)  Most original political philosopher of 17th c.  Enthusiastic supporter of New Science  Turmoil of English Civil War motivated his Leviathan (1651)  Leviathan: rigorous philosophical justification for absolutist government  Humans not basically social, but basically self-centered  State of nature is a state of war; life in this state is “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.” Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

22. The famous title page illustration for Hobbes’s Leviathan. The ruler is pictured as absolute lord of his lands, but note that the ruler incorporates the mass of individuals whose self-interests are best served by their willing consent to accept him and cooperate with him.

23. JOHN LOCKE (1632–1704)  Most influential philosophical and political thinker of the 17th c.  Contrast with Hobbes  First Treatise of Government: argued against patriarchal models of government  Second Treatise of Government: government as necessarily responsible for and responsive to the governed  Humans basically creatures of reason and goodwill  Letter Concerning Toleration (1689): argument for religious toleration  Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690): described human mind at birth as a “blank slate” with content to be determined by sensory experience—reformist view, rejects Christian concept of original sin Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

24. THE RISE OF ACADEMIC SOCIETIES  The New Science threatened vested academic interests and was slow to gain ground in universities  Establishment of “institutions of sharing”:  Royal Society of London (1660)  Academy of Experiments (Florence, 1657)  French Academy of Science (1666)  Berlin Academy of Science (1700) Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Colbert was Louis XIV’s most influential minister. He sought to expand the economic life of France and to associate the monarchy with the emerging new science from which he hoped might flow new inventions and productive technology. Here he is portrayed presenting members of the French Academy of Science to the monarch. On the founding of the French Academy. Henri Testelin (1616– 1695). (after Le Brun). Minister of Finance Colbert presenting the members of the Royal Academy of Science (founded in 1667) to Louis XIV. Study for a tapestry. Photo: Gerard Blot. Chateaux de Versailles et de Trianon, Versailles, France.

25. WOMEN IN THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION Generally excluded from the institutions of European scientific and intellectual life.  Queen Christina of Sweden (r. 1623– 1654): Patroness of the sciences, brought Descartes to Stockholm to design regulations for a new science academy  Margaret Cavendish (1623–1673): Writer, playwright and philosopher, interacted with Hobbes, Descartes, and others.  Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy (1666)  Grounds of Natural Philosophy (1668)  Maria Winkelmann (1670-1720)— accomplished German astronomer, did work on comets, Jupiter, and Aurora Borealis. Excluded from Royal Society of Astronomers, but accepted into Berlin Academy of Science on her merits. Margaret Cavendish, who wrote widely on scientific subjects, was the most accomplished woman associated with the new science in seventeenth- century England.

26. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Queen Christina of Sweden (r. 1632–1654), shown here with the French philosopher and scientist René Descartes, was one of many women from the elite classes interested in the new science. In 1649 she invited Descartes to live at her court in Stockholm, but he died a few months after moving to Sweden. Pierre-Louis the Younger Dumesnil (1698– 1781), Christina of Sweden (1626–89) and her Court: detail of the Queen and René Descartes (1596– 1650) at the Table.

27. NEW SCIENCE AND RELIGION  Three major issues:  Certain scientific theories and discoveries conflicted with Scripture  Who resolves such disputes: religious authorities or natural philosophers?  New science’s apparent replacement of spiritually significant universe with purely material one  Representative incident: Roman Catholic authorities condemn Galileo, 1633—under house arrest for last nine years of his life  Catholic Inquisition places Copernicus’s On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres on Index of Prohibited Books, 1616  Roman Catholic Church formally admits errors of biblical interpretation in Galileo’s case, 1992 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Adriaen Stalbent (1589–1662), The Sciences and the Arts. Wood, 93 °— 114 cm. Inv. 1405. Museo del Prado, Madrid, Spain

28. ATTEMPTS TO RECONCILE REASON AND FAITH  Blaise Pascal (1623–1662), French mathematician  Opposed both dogmatism and skepticism  “Pascal’s Wager” - Erroneous belief in God is a safer bet than erroneous unbelief  Francis Bacon  Two books of divine revelation: the Bible and nature  Since both books share the same author, they must be compatible  Economics: technological and economic innovation seen as part of a divine plan—man is to understand world and then put it into productive rational use Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.

29. BAROQUE ART  17th c. painting, sculpture, architecture  Subjects depicted in naturalistic rather than idealized manner.  used exaggerated motion and clear, easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur  Michelangelo Caravaggio (1573–1610) as example of baroque Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.