1. Exploring the Self Module 59:

2. The Self The self is now one of Western psychology’s most researched topics Self – in modern psychology, the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions Possible selves: – visions of the self you dream of becoming (rich, successful, admired, etc.) – self you fear becoming (unemployed, lonely, academically failed, etc.) – Motivate us by giving us specific goals to work towards

3. The Self (Cont.) Spotlight effect – overestimating others’ noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders – (like a spotlight shining on us) – Fewer people notice our clothing, nervousness, irritation, attraction, embarrassing moments, etc. than we think

4. Self-Esteem and Self-Efficacy Self-esteem – one’s feelings of high or low self- worth (beliefs about self-worth) – High self-esteem = sleep better, are more persistent on difficult tasks, are less shy, anxious, and lonely, and are happier – Low self-esteem = are more likely to be critical, oversensitive, and disparage others If self-esteem is threatened, people are more likely to be violent & excessively critical of others – Two types: defensive self-esteem – focus is on keeping your image/esteem up so failure & criticism are seen as threatening secure self-esteem - not worried about external evaluations so enables us to focus on ourself & not other’s views of us.

5. Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy – one’s sense of competence and effectiveness in a specific situation (beliefs about capability) – The sense that one can control the outcome of one’s environment – High self-efficacy predicts achievement in school Develops in childhood but it continues as a lifelong process. A person’s cognitive skills, abilities & attitudes create our self- system We develop new behaviors and strengthen our self- efficacy by observing others and through mastery experiences. Different from Self-Esteem which is more global – How you feel about yourself in overall.

7. The perception that we control our own fate (leads to high self-efficacy) External Locus of Control The perception that chance, or forces beyond a person’s control, control one’s fate Internal Locus of Control

8. Self-Serving Bias Self-serving bias – a readiness to perceive oneself favorably – Said another way, we tend to see ourselves in a positive light Some examples: – People accept more responsibility for good deeds than for bad, and for successes than failures Tend to praise ourselves for a good grade on a test or criticize the test if we do poorly – Most people see themselves as better than average We overestimate ourselves and underestimate others

9. Extreme Self-Serving Bias Narcissism – excessive self-love and self- absorption – Narcissism is rising, just like self-serving perceptions – Studies have found that agreement with narcissistic statements is correlated with materialism, desire to be famous, inflated expectations, more gambling, and more cheating

10. Criticisms of Self-Serving Bias Critics of self-serving bias point out that some people feel worthless and unlovable This could be because: – Self-Handicapping - Self-directed put-downs may be subtly strategic and contain some reassurance – Before a big event, self-disparaging comments prepare us for possible failure – Some self-disparaging comments can help us learn from our mistakes – Self-disparagement often pertains to one’s old self

11. Culture and the Self Individualism – giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals – Defines one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications – Typically people from North America, Western Europe, Australia, or New Zealand Collectivism – giving priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family or work group) – Defining one’s identity according to the group – Typically people in Asian cultures