1. Jessica Smith Kellye Ingraham February 14, 2012 MOTIVATION AND AFFECT CHAPTER 6

2.  Have you ever felt defeated like Michael? Were you able to overcome it? How?  How could you use this case study or your personal experience with your students? CASE STUDY: PASSING ALGEBRA

3. Motivation is an inner state that energizes, directs, and sustains behavior. It gets the learner moving, points them in a particular direction, and keeps them going. Affect is the feelings, emotions, and moods that a learner brings to bear on a task. MOTIVATION & AFFECT DEFINED

4. 1. Learners have a basic need for arousal.  Were you able to do nothing for five minutes?  People have a need for arousal, the basic need for ongoing physical or cognitive stimulation.  We strive for an optimal level of stimulation at which we feel best, not too little or too much.  People have different optimal levels, including sensation seekers and need for cognition. BASIC HUMAN NEEDS: PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING

5. 2. Learners want to believe they are competent and have self-worth.  People have a need for competence, the basic need to believe that one can deal effectively with the overall environment.  This is paralleled with self-worth, the belief about the extent to which one is generally a good, capable individual.  Maintaining self-worth includes other people’s judgments and approval, achieving success in new and challenging activities, and failure avoidance. BASIC HUMAN NEEDS: PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING

6. 3. Learners want to determine the course of their lives to some degree.  People have a need for self-determination, the basic need to believe that one had some autonomy and control regarding the course of one’s life.  When we think “I want to do this” or “I find it valuable to do that,” we have a high sense of self-determination.  When we think “I have to” or “I should,” we have a sense that someone else is making the decision for us. BASIC HUMAN NEEDS: PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING

7. 4. Learners want to feel connected to other people.  People have a need for relatedness, the basic need to feel socially connected to others and to secure others’ love and respect.  High priority to connect with friends may negatively influence schoolwork or make adolescents susceptible to peer pressure.  The need for relatedness can also be meet working for the betterment of others. BASIC HUMAN NEEDS: PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING

8. 1. Motivation directs behavior toward particular goals.  People exhibit goal-oriented behavior as early as two months of age.  Motivation determines the specific goals and influences the choices learners make. 2. Motivation increases effort and persistence in activities.  When activities are directly related to learner goals and needs, motivation increases effort and energy.  Motivation increases learners’ time on task, the amount of time that students are actively engaged in a learning activity. HOW MOTIVATION AFFECTS BEHAVIOR AND COGNITION

9. 3. Motivation affects cognitive processes.  Motivated learners are more likely to pay attention.  They also try to learn material meaningfully. 4. Motivation determines what consequences are reinforcing and punishing.  Whether a consequence is reinforcing or punishing is determined by the learner’s goals and desires. HOW MOTIVATION AFFECTS BEHAVIOR AND COGNITION

10. 5. Motivation often leads to improved performance.  The preceding effects frequently led to improved performance. HOW MOTIVATION AFFECTS BEHAVIOR AND COGNITION MOTIVATION 1. Goal-directed Behavior 2. Effort, Energy & Persistence 3. Cognitive Processing 4. Consequence Impact ENHANCED PERFORMANCE

11. 6. Intrinsic motivation is usually more beneficial than extrinsic motivation.  Intrinsic motivation is motivation resulting from personal characteristics or inherent in task being performed.  Extrinsic motivation is motivation resulting from factors external to the individual and unrelated to the task being performed.  Flow is an intense form of intrinsic motivation, involving complete absorption in and concentration on a challenging activity.  Extrinsic-intrinsic motivation is seen as a continuum. 7. Conditions in the learning environment influence intrinsic as well as extrinsic motivation.  Situated motivation is motivation that emerges at least partly from conditions in a learner’s immediate environment. HOW MOTIVATION AFFECTS BEHAVIOR AND COGNITION INTRINSIC EXTRINSIC

12. 1. Learners find some topics inherently interesting.  Interest is a feeling that a topic is intriguing or enticing.  Interest is a form of intrinsic motivation.  Interest can be situational, that is evoked temporarily by something in the environment.  Interest can be personal, meaning long-term, relatively stable interest in a particular topic or activity.  STUDENT INTEREST INVENTORIES  Example 1 Example 1  Example 2 Example 2  Example 3 Example 3 COGNITIVE FACTORS IN MOTIVATION

13. 2. To engage voluntarily in activities, learners want their chances of success to be reasonably good.  Self-efficacy is a learner’s self-constructed judgment about his or her ability to execute certain behaviors or reach certain goals.  It affects the learner’s expectations for future performance.  Collective self-efficiency is the shared belief of members of a group that they can be successful when they work together on a task.  Resilient self-efficacy is the belief that one can perform a task successfully even after experiencing occasional setbacks.  Effort, new strategies, encouragement and suggestions can all enhance self-efficacy. COGNITIVE FACTORS IN MOTIVATION

14. 3. When learners think their chances of success are slim, they may behave in ways that make success even less likely.  Learners may engage in self-handicapping, behaviors that undermine one’s own success as a way of protecting self- worth during difficult tasks.  Reducing Effort  Misbehaving  Setting Unattainably High Goals  Taking on Too Much  Procrastinating  Cheating  Using Alcohol or Drugs  They increase their chances of justifying the failure and thereby protecting their self-worth. COGNITIVE FACTORS IN MOTIVATION

15. 4. Learners are more likely to devote time to activities that have value for them.  Value is the belief that an activity has direct or indirect benefits, i.e. important or has utility.  Social and cultural environment can influence learners’ values in internalized motivation, the adoption of others’ priorities and values as one’s own. 5. Learners must juggle their achievement goals with their many other goals.  A social goal is a desire related to establishing or maintaining relationships with other people.  A core goal is a long-term goal that drives much of what a learner does. COGNITIVE FACTORS IN MOTIVATION

16. 6. Learners typically form goals related to academic achievement; the specific nature of these goals influences learners’ cognitive processes and behaviors.  Mastery goal is the desire to acquire additional knowledge or master new skills.  Performance goal is the desire to demonstrate high ability and make a good impression.  Performance-approach goal is the desire to look good and receive favorable judgments from others.  Performance-avoidance goal is the desire not to look bad or receive unfavorable judgments from others.  Mastery goals are ideal because learners tend to engage in activities that will help them learn, whereas performance goals may steer learners away from more challenging tasks. COGNITIVE FACTORS IN MOTIVATION

17. 7. Leaners identify what are, in their minds, the likely causes of their successes and failures.  Attributions are personally constructed explanation for a success or failure.  Attributions vary in three ways:  Locus “Place”: Internal v. External  Stability: Stable v. Unstable  Controllability: Controllable v. Uncontrollable  In general, learners attribute successes to internal causes and failures to external causes, allowing them to maintain their self-worth. COGNITIVE FACTORS IN MOTIVATION

18. 8. Learners’ attributions for past successes and failures affect their future performance.  Emotional reactions to success and failure.  Expectations for future success or failure.  Future choices.  Effort and persistence.  Learning strategies. COGNITIVE FACTORS IN MOTIVATION

19. 9. With age, learners increasingly attribute their successes and failures to ability rather than to effort.  In elementary school, learners attribute their success to hard work and practice.  As they get older, many begin to attribute success and failure to inherited ability.  The degree to which intelligence is a result of heredity or environment is a matter of controversy among psychologists, discussed in chapter 5.  Entity view of intelligence is the belief that intelligence is a “thing” that is relatively permanent and unchangeable.  Incremental view of intelligence is the belief that intelligence can improve with effort and practice. COGNITIVE FACTORS IN MOTIVATION

20. 10. Over time, learners acquire a general attributional style.  Mastery orientation is a general, fairly pervasive belief that one is capable of accomplishing challenging tasks.  Learned helplessness is a general, fairly pervasive belief that one is incapable of accomplishing tasks and has little or no control over the environment.  Can be thought of as a continuum between optimists and pessimists. COGNITIVE FACTORS IN MOTIVATION

21. 11. Culture influences the cognitive factors underlying motivation.  Values, goals, and attributions seem to be influenced by cultural environment. 12. Cognitive factors underlying sustained motivation build up over a period of time.  Cognitive factors evolve slowly with time, better strategies, and a regular pattern of success experiences. COGNITIVE FACTORS IN MOTIVATION

22. THEORYPERSPECTIVE Self-DeterminationMotivated when the basic need for competence, autonomy, and relatedness are met. Self-WorthMotivated by maintaining self-worth through frequent successes and using self-handicapping to save face in failure. Expectancy-ValueMotivated by an expectation to succeed and the value-added. Social CognitiveMotivated by high self-efficacy. GoalMotivated by goals, both mastery and performance. AttributionMotivated by beliefs about how attributions influence successes and failures. Positive PsychologyMotivated by uniquely human qualities to engage in productive, worthwhile activities. BehaviorismMotivated by extrinsic drives, needed for optimal functioning. HumanismMotivated by a desire to understand self and enhance skills. THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF MOTIVATION

23.  Emotions, moods and other forms of affect influence motivation.  Learners experience pleasure and excitement from interesting experiences and tasks.  Positive affect can help promote self efficacy. This means that when a learner enjoys something, they are more likely to feel good about themselves in regards to the task. AFFECT AND MOTIVATION ARE INTERRELATED

24.  Affect and learning is also interrelated.  Hot cognition occurs when a learner’s thoughts or memories become emotionally charged.  Learners are more likely to pay attention to information that is attached to emotion. AFFECT AND COGNITION

25.  Cognitive dissonance occurs when learners encounter information that conflicts with what they already know or believe.  Learners often feel uncomfortable when this occurs. Piaget referred to this as disequilibrium.  Learners must either change their conceptual understanding or find fault with the new information. COGNITIVE DISSONANCE

27.  When students are excited about an activity or subject, they are more likely to:  Pay attention  Work harder  Be more creative  Use self-regulated learning strategies while studying. POSITIVE AFFECT

28.  Anxiety is an uncontrolled feeling of uneasiness when given a situation with an unknown outcome.  Anxiety does not always have a negative effect on students. A small amount can improve performance. When this occurs, it is known as facilitating anxiety. Facilitating anxiety makes students go to school, complete homework assignments, and study. This is most likely to occur when learners face a challenge.  When anxiety has a negative affect, it is known as debilitating anxiety. This type of anxiety makes it difficult for students to pay attention, process information, and retrieve information. Debilitating anxiety occurs when learners face a threat. ANXIETY

29. Think of an example for each of the following situations:  Safety is at risk  Self-worth is threatened  Physical appearance  A new situation  Judgment or evaluation by others  Frustrating subject matter  Tests or exams  The future is unknown SITUATIONS THAT COULD CAUSE DEBILITATING ANXIETY

30.  Our behaviors and attitudes as teachers influence how students are motivated.  Intrinsic motivation has a much stronger effect on students than extrinsic motivation.  Intrinsic motivation can be encouraged through addressing psychological needs.  Teachers can encourage students to be intrinsically motivated by:  Addressing students’ need for arousal  Promoting self-efficacy  Create a balance between challenging and simple activities  Allow students a sense of autonomy about school  Use extrinsic reinforcers appropriately  Create a positive classroom environment INTRINSIC MOTIVATION

31.  Some activities engage students by considering the basic need of arousal.  Look at the chart on page 215 for examples of ways to generate interest in different subjects. BUILDING INTRINSIC MOTIVATION

32.  Teachers are quick to praise students in general ways, for example, telling them they are special. These strategies do little to promote self-efficacy.  Teachers should encourage students’ abilities in specific domains instead.  When students feel success in an activity, they are more likely to increase their self confidence, therefore promoting further success.  A good strategy is to encourage students by explaining how other students similar to them have mastered the activity or concept. ENCOURAGE SELF-EFFICACY

33. Bandura's Self-Efficacy The concept of self-efficacy described in this chapter is part of psychologist Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory. Watch the following video on Bandura’s view of self-efficacy: BANDURA AND SELF-EFFICACY

34.  Students are more likely to feel positively about themselves when they are faced with challenges that they can accomplish.  Students are often more motivated by challenges. SET REALISTIC GOALS  Teachers must balance challenging activities that will boost self-esteem over time with easy tasks that could encourage students immediately.

35.  Students will be more engaged when they feel that they have control over some aspects of the school environment.  Teachers should involve students in making decisions.  When students have choices, they are more likely to behave in class and be interested in what they do.  Examples of students choosing activities:  Discussing rules and procedures  Topics of essays or research assignments  Choice of books to read  Due dates  Grading rubrics  The order of tasks done through the day SHARE THE POWER

36.  Though intrinsic motivation is much more effective, extrinsic motivation can encourage students.  Stickers, treats, praise, good grades, and other rewards are examples of extrinsic reinforcers.  They can be used positively to encourage students to do something well. EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION A classroom “treasure chest” is an example of extrinsic motivation. Students can visit the treasure chest for good behavior or work.

37.  Keeping in mind that self-determination is an important part of intrinsic motivation, teachers should encourage students by working with them to improve their knowledge and skills rather than judging them. When students see their teachers and classmates as a team, they are more likely to be motivated to achieve.  When students feel accepted into the school environment by teachers and their peers, they are more likely to perform well.  Group activities and discussions can help students make connections. CREATING A CLASSROOM COMMUNITY

38.  By addressing cognitive factors that affect motivation, teachers can increase student learning and class performance.  Teachers should promote motivating cognitions by:  Creating connections to students’ lives  Focusing on mastery goals  Asking students to set goals for learning  Forming optimistic expectations  Minimizing competition PROMOTING “MOTIVATING” COGNITION

39.  Considering students’ interests, goals, and values can help students become more motivated. When planning lessons, teachers should keep in mind the interests and goals of their students.  Performance goals are goals that meet expectations of an outside component. Performance goals are met through comparison with other students. Test scores and grades are examples of performance goals.  Mastery goals lead to better performance in the long run because they require the student to have a true understanding of the subject.  Teachers should strive to help students create and foster mastery goals to benefit all students. SETTING GOALS

40.  Students work harder on goals that they choose for themselves.  Teachers can help students set short-term, concrete goals, called proximal goals, in the classroom.  With proximity goals, students are able to feel success therefore increasing self efficacy and motivation.  Teachers should encourage students to meet their goals and not be hindered by beliefs about students’ abilities.  Teachers should communicate with students in a way that allows them to succeed and helps them improve.  A self-fulfilling prophecy is when a teacher’s expectations of a student become reality.  Self-fulfilling prophecies may have a positive or negative effect on the student.  To avoid problems in this area, teachers should be constantly assessing students and changing their beliefs and expectations. GOALS

41.  Some competition can be positive, but too much can have a negative impact on student motivation and self-worth.  Students are more likely to benefit from competition if they believe that they have a chance to win.  Competition may have a negative effect on students:  Promotes performance goals  Can lead to cheating or other negative behavior  Can hinder students who expect to fail  Can bring down students’ self-esteem  Encourages attributions instead of effort. COMPETITION

42.  Teachers should strive to keep students in a positive emotional state when possible.  By getting students emotionally involved in the subject matter, students attitudes should improve.  Teachers should also try to foster emotional self- regulation. As discussed in Chapter 4, self- regulation is when learners keep a check on their understanding. Emotional self-regulation is when students are able to keep their emotions under control. To do this, teachers should be open to discussion about emotions and help students through difficult times. GENERATING A PRODUCTIVE AFFECT

43.  Anxiety is a normal part of life, but by teaching social skills and ways to handle stress, students will be better prepared in difficult situations.  Teachers can lower student anxiety by communicating clear expectations, providing appropriate instruction, teaching learning strategies, assessing students and providing feedback, and encouraging students to view mistakes positively.  Anxiety can become especially high when students are transitioning between schools. Teachers should keep in mind the multiple strains students in high school and middle school face. ANXIETY

44. They Can Because They Think They Can Supplemental Reading: Vacca, R. T. (2006). They can because they think they can. Educational Leadership, 63(5), 44-49.