1. Interest groups
Chapter 8

2. Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Learning Objectives
8.1 Outline how interest groups have developed over time 8.2 Identify the types of interest groups that have evolved 8.3 Describe activities interest groups engage in 8.4 Analyze what balances out power among interest groups 8.5 Assess what makes an interest group successful
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3. Interest Groups and Politics
In 1831, the political theorist Alexis de Tocqueville observed that Americans liked to form groups and join associations as a way of participating in community and political life.
He also noted that the formation of group life was an important element of the success of democracy in America.
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4. Interest Groups and Politics
What Are Interest Groups?
Group of citizens who share a common interest
Try to influence public policy to benefit members
Proactive and reactive groups
A proactive group forms when a person sees an opening or opportunity to create a group for social, political, or economic purposes.
A reactive group forms
to protect interests of members in response to a threat
fight government policies members believe will affect them adversely
in response to an external event
interest groups:
Groups of citizens who share a common interest—a political opinion, religious or ideological belief, a social goal, or an economic characteristic— and try to influence public policy to benefit themselves.

5. Interest Groups and Politics
Some Reasons Groups Form
To advance economic status
To express an ideological viewpoint
To influence public policy
To promote activism in international affairs
interest groups:
Groups of citizens who share a common interest—a political opinion, religious or ideological belief, a social goal, or an economic characteristic— and try to influence public policy to benefit themselves.
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6. Interest Groups and Politics
Reasons citizens join groups include
advancement of their personal economic well- being.
getting their voice heard as part of a larger group’s efforts on an issue.
meeting like-minded citizens.
participating in a democratic society.
interest groups:
Groups of citizens who share a common interest—a political opinion, religious or ideological belief, a social goal, or an economic characteristic— and try to influence public policy to benefit themselves.
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7. Interest Groups and Politics
The Right to Assemble and to Petition
Right of association in First Amendment
the cornerstone of interest group protection
Framers fearful of factions
Right of petition
ask the government for assistance with a problem
to express opposition to a government policy
ask for a policy change
Lobbying
Act of trying to persuade elected officials to adopt a specific policy change or maintain the status quo
right of association:
Right to freely associate with others and form groups, as protected by the First Amendment.
faction:
Defined by Madison as any group that places its own interests above the aggregate interests of society.
right of petition:
Right to ask the government for assistance with a problem or to express opposition to a government policy, as protected by the First Amendment.
lobbying:
Act of trying to persuade elected officials to adopt a specific policy change or maintain the status quo.
Key Questions
Why do you think Americans like to join organizations? How does this tendency relate to American political culture?
Do you think interest groups are divisive and polarizing? Or do they bring citizens together? Can you give examples to support your opinion?
Have you ever signed a petition? What was it for?

8. Interest Groups and Politics
Citizens have been using their right to petition to influence government since the earliest days of the democracy. Here female lobbyists in the late nineteenth century are trying to persuade members of Congress in the Marble Room of the U.S. Capitol. Although women did not yet have the right to vote, they still went to Washington to make their voices heard on issues that were important to them.
Source: The Granger Collection, New York
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9. Interest Groups and Politics
The History of Interest Groups
Citizens opposed to slavery (abolitionists)
Women’s suffrage
Abolitionist and women's suffrage groups paralleled each other in using the principle of equality as a rationale for supporting their policy goals.
Trade associations during Industrialization
Labor unions
Prohibition
Today, grassroots movements
unions:
Interest groups of individuals who share a common type of employment and seek better wages and working conditions through collective bargaining with employers.
Grassroots movement:
Group that forms in response to an economic or political event but does not focus on only one issue.
Key Questions
How did interest groups work to end slavery? How long did it take women’s suffrage groups to accomplish their goal?
Are groups representing manufacturers and corporations more or less powerful than citizens’ interest groups? Do groups balance out each other?
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10. Interest Groups and Politics
Prohibition was enacted by the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution in Here a restaurant owner in New York City makes it clear that no alcohol is sold on the premises. Prohibition was hard to enforce and was ultimately repealed by the Twenty-First Amendment to the Constitution in 1933.
Source: Imagno–ullstein bild/The Granger Collection, NYC
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11. Types of Interest Groups
Economic Interest Groups
Formed to advance the economic status of its members.
The membership of economic interest groups tends to be exclusive because their purpose is to secure tangible economic benefits for themselves.
economic interest group:
Group formed to advance the economic status of its members.
Key Questions
What are the professional associations in the career field you are thinking of now? Are they worth joining?
Do you know any union members? Are you a union member, or would you join a union?
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12. Types of Interest Groups
Economic Interest Groups
Trade Associations
Trade associations form out of a belief that collectively they can better influence the policy process.
Focus on particular businesses or industries. Examples include:
National Association of Manufacturers
Chamber of Commerce
National Retail Federation
Semiconductor Industry Association
economic interest group:
Group formed to advance the economic status of its members.
Key Questions
What are the professional associations in the career field you are thinking of now? Are they worth joining?
Do you know any union members? Are you a union member, or would you join a union?
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13. Types of Interest Groups
Economic Interest Groups
Professional Associations such as
The American Bar Association (lawyers)
The American Medical Association (doctors)
The American International Automobile Dealers Association (car dealers)
Corporations
economic interest group:
Group formed to advance the economic status of its members.
Key Questions
What are the professional associations in the career field you are thinking of now? Are they worth joining?
Do you know any union members? Are you a union member, or would you join a union?
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14. Types of Interest Groups
Economic Interest Groups
Unions
organized by workers to protect their interests and counteract the power of wealthy business corporations
Strength in the strike
Declining membership in private sector
In recent years, collective bargaining over wages, pensions, and other benefits by public sector unions, such as those representing teachers and government employees, has come under attack by advocates for small government, including members of the Tea Party movement.
economic interest group:
Group formed to advance the economic status of its members.
Key Questions
What are the professional associations in the career field you are thinking of now? Are they worth joining?
Do you know any union members? Are you a union member, or would you join a union?
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15. Percentage of Wage and Salary Workers with Union Membership, 1983-2013
Figure 8.1
Private sector union membership has been declining over time, while public union membership has increased.
Notes: Data refer to the sole or principal job of full- and part-time workers. All self-employed workers are excluded, regardless of whether or not their businesses are incorporated. Data for 1990–93 have been revised to reflect population controls from the 1990 census. Beginning in 2000 data reflect population controls from census 2000 and new industry and occupational classification systems. Beginning in 2000 private sector data refer to private sector wage and salary workers; private sector data for earlier years refer to private nonagricultural wage and salary workers.
Percentages are based on the percentage employed.
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16. Unions with the Largest Membership 2014
Table 8.1
Source: National Education Association, Service Employees International Union, American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees, American Federation of Teachers, International Brotherhood of Teamsters, United Food and Commercial Workers International Union,
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17. Types of Interest Groups
Ideological and Issue-Oriented Groups
Citizens’ groups
typically formed to draw attention to public issues that affect all citizens equally, such as environmental protection, transparency in government, consumer product safety, ethics reform, and campaign finance reform.
Ideological interest groups:
Groups that form among citizens with the same beliefs about a specific issue.
Common Cause
National Rifle Association
ideological interest groups:
Groups that form among citizens with the same beliefs about a specific issue.
citizens’ groups:
Groups that form to draw attention to purely public issues that affect all citizens equally.
single-issue groups:
Groups that form to present one view on a highly salient issue that is intensely important to members, such as gun control or abortion.
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18. Types of Interest Groups
Ideological and Issue-Oriented Groups
Single-issue groups
Groups that form to present one view on a highly salient issue that is intensely important to members, such as gun control or abortion.
NRA
National Abortion Rights Action League (NARAL)
ideological interest groups:
Groups that form among citizens with the same beliefs about a specific issue.
citizens’ groups:
Groups that form to draw attention to purely public issues that affect all citizens equally.
single-issue groups:
Groups that form to present one view on a highly salient issue that is intensely important to members, such as gun control or abortion.
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19. Types of Interest Groups
Foreign Policy and International Groups
Groups That Influence Foreign Policy
American Israel Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC) one of the best-known organizations that seeks to influence foreign policy.
Groups That Advocate International Aid and Support for Human Rights
Nongovernmental organizations
Not affiliated with any government and work hard to preserve their neutrality so that they can operate in as many parts of the world as possible
Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs):
Organizations independent of governments that monitor and improve political, economic, and social conditions throughout the world.
Key Questions
How do ideological interest groups contribute to polarization?
Should governments seek to solve hunger, disease, and other worldwide social problems? Or should private charities play this role?
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20. What Interest Groups Do
Inform
Interpret how policy will affect their mission
Ex. When the Sierra Club posted a notice on its website informing members about EPA regulations that took a strong stance against climate change
inside strategy:
A strategy employed by interest groups to pursue a narrow policy change and influence legislators directly rather than using a wider grassroots approach.
Key Question
Why is the public perception of lobbyists so negative?
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21. What Interest Groups Do
Lobby
The Lobbyists
Lobbying Strategies
Inside strategy
lobbyists deal directly with legislators and their staff to seek specific policy or to stop one
Outside strategy
Grassroots strategy
inside strategy:
A strategy employed by interest groups to pursue a narrow policy change and influence legislators directly rather than using a wider grassroots approach.
Key Question
Why is the public perception of lobbyists so negative?
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22. What Interest Groups Do
Lobby
The Lobbyists
During a typical day, lobbyists phone, , and meet with congressional staffers, their clients, and possibly members of the media to gather information about relevant issues for their clients or to promote their clients’ policy positions.
inside strategy:
A strategy employed by interest groups to pursue a narrow policy change and influence legislators directly rather than using a wider grassroots approach.
Key Question
Why is the public perception of lobbyists so negative?
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23. What Interest Groups Do
There are three common pathways to becoming a Washington lobbyist:
Working on Capitol Hill
Working in the executive branch
Working on a political campaign
inside strategy:
A strategy employed by interest groups to pursue a narrow policy change and influence legislators directly rather than using a wider grassroots approach.
Key Question
Why is the public perception of lobbyists so negative?
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24. What Interest Groups Do
When interest groups gather and disseminate information, are they performing a public service? Or do they do it just to advance their own cause? If so, is there anything wrong with that?
inside strategy:
A strategy employed by interest groups to pursue a narrow policy change and influence legislators directly rather than using a wider grassroots approach.
Key Question
Why is the public perception of lobbyists so negative?
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25. Top Spenders on Lobbying, 2013
Table 8.2
Source: Adapted from Center for Responsive Politics, “Lobbying: Top Spenders, 2013,” accessed August 20,
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26. What Interest Groups Do
Source: Lisa Werner/Alamy
Peaceful protests are frequently an effective way of voicing opinion on an issue. This gathering was organized to show opposition to fracking.
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27. What Interest Groups Do
Campaign Activities
501(c)(3) organizations exempt from federal tax
Prohibited from engaging in any activity on behalf of a candidate or party in an election campaign.
Political Action Committees (PACs)
Groups formed to raise and contribute funds to support electoral candidates and that are subject to campaign finance laws
Buckley v. Valeo decision increased growth
Critics say disproportionate influence over legislators
Running issue ads
501(c)(3) organizations:
Tax-exempt groups that are prohibited from lobbying or campaigning for a party or candidate.
political action committees (PACs):
Groups formed to raise and contribute funds to support electoral candidates and that are subject to campaign finance laws.
Key Questions
Are issue ads fair or unfair? Are they informative or “disinformative”?
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28. Top 20 PAC Contributors to Candidates 2013-2014
Table 8.3
Source: Center for Responsive Politics, adapted from data released by the Federal Election Commission, Accessed August 20, 2014
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29. The Impact of Interest Groups on Democratic Processes
Given the amount of money that PACs spend on campaign support, many people are concerned that PACs exert a disproportionate influence over legislators.
Should there be limits on how much money interest groups can contribute to campaigns? Why or why not?
pluralist:
View of democratic society in which interest groups compete over policy goals, and elected officials are mediators of group conflict.
special interests:
Set of groups seeking a particular benefit for themselves in the policy process.
Key Questions
Do you think interest groups form from the bottom up or from the top down?
Do interest groups bring people into the democratic process, or do they strengthen some voices at the expense of others?
Do interest groups balance out each other the way that Madison thought they would?
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30. The Impact of Interest Groups on Democratic Processes
The McCain-Feingold Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act restricted corporations and unions from using television and radio ads for “electioneering communications” that refer to a candidate by name within thirty days of a primary and sixty days of a general election.
pluralist:
View of democratic society in which interest groups compete over policy goals, and elected officials are mediators of group conflict.
special interests:
Set of groups seeking a particular benefit for themselves in the policy process.
Key Questions
Do you think interest groups form from the bottom up or from the top down?
Do interest groups bring people into the democratic process, or do they strengthen some voices at the expense of others?
Do interest groups balance out each other the way that Madison thought they would?
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31. The Impact of Interest Groups on Democratic Processes
Generally speaking, the Supreme Court has ruled that campaign spending is a form a speech, and the Court requires that Congress show a compelling interest before it can regulate it.
pluralist:
View of democratic society in which interest groups compete over policy goals, and elected officials are mediators of group conflict.
special interests:
Set of groups seeking a particular benefit for themselves in the policy process.
Key Questions
Do you think interest groups form from the bottom up or from the top down?
Do interest groups bring people into the democratic process, or do they strengthen some voices at the expense of others?
Do interest groups balance out each other the way that Madison thought they would?
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32. The Impact of Interest Groups on Democratic Processes
In Citizens United v. Federal Elections Commission, the Court ruled that individuals, corporations, and unions can spend as much money as they want on issue ads
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33. The Impact of Interest Groups on Democratic Processes
In McCutcheon et al. v. Federal Election Commission, the Court expanded the right of an individual to spend unlimited money on federal elections.
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34. The Impact of Interest Groups on Democratic Processes
Natural Balance or Disproportionate Power
Olson argued difficult to keep effective
Dahl’s pluralist view
View of the democratic society in which interest groups will compete over policy goals, and elected officials are mediators of group conflict.
Dahl argued that in a pluralist society, the varied interest groups that emerge to represent their members will, in their battles over public policy, produce a consensus that serves the public’s common interest.
pluralist:
View of democratic society in which interest groups compete over policy goals, and elected officials are mediators of group conflict.
special interests:
Set of groups seeking a particular benefit for themselves in the policy process.
Key Questions
Do you think interest groups form from the bottom up or from the top down?
Do interest groups bring people into the democratic process, or do they strengthen some voices at the expense of others?
Do interest groups balance out each other the way that Madison thought they would?
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35. The Impact of Interest Groups on Democratic Processes
Natural Balance or Disproportionate Power
Mills power elite
Narrow focus elicits sense of illegitimacy
Special interests has negative connotation
Set of groups seeking a particular benefit for themselves in the policy process.
E. E. Schattschneider believed that interest groups were a threat to
pluralist:
View of democratic society in which interest groups compete over policy goals, and elected officials are mediators of group conflict.
special interests:
Set of groups seeking a particular benefit for themselves in the policy process.
Key Questions
Do you think interest groups form from the bottom up or from the top down?
Do interest groups bring people into the democratic process, or do they strengthen some voices at the expense of others?
Do interest groups balance out each other the way that Madison thought they would?
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36. The Impact of Interest Groups on Democratic Processes
Self-Service or Public Service
Auto manufacturers blocked government- mandated fuel standards
When the federal government shut down in October 2013, the congressmen who refused to vote for continued funding did so due to lobbying pressure from the Club for Growth
In assessing the power of interest groups in a democracy, it is important to remember that interest groups do not pass or implement laws.
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37. The Impact of Interest Groups on Democratic Processes
The frustrating aspect of interest groups in a democracy is that the groups talk over each other and not with each other.
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38. The Impact of Interest Groups on Democratic Processes
Open or Closed Routes of Influence
Iron triangle
Insular and closed relationship among interest groups, members of Congress, and federal agencies.
Issue networks
View of the relationship among interest groups, members of Congress, and federal agencies as more fluid, open, and transparent than that described by the term iron triangle.
Revolving door
Movement of members of Congress, lobbyists, and executive branch employees into paid positions in each other’s organizations.
iron triangle:
Insular and closed relationship among interest groups, members of Congress, and federal agencies.
issue network:
View of the relationship among interest groups, members of Congress, and federal agencies as more fluid, open, and transparent than that described by the term iron triangle.
revolving door:
Movement of members of Congress, lobbyists, and executive branch employees into paid positions in each other’s organizations.
Key Questions
Name two or three interest groups that you think have a lot of power in American politics. Do you agree or disagree with their positions?
Do you think the military-industrial complex exists today?
How does government prevent corruption among government officials?

39. Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Iron Triangle
Figure 8.3
The iron triangle is a policy-making structure that includes congressional committees, federal agencies, and interest groups.
© Cengage Learning.
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40. The Impact of Interest Groups on Democratic Processes
Source: Michael Reynolds/Epa /Landov
In a prime example of the revolving door, Senator Jim DeMint (R-SC) who was a conservative leader in the Senate, left office during his term to lead the Heritage Foundation, a conservative think tank, reportedly for a much higher salary.
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41. The Impact of Interest Groups on Democratic Processes
Are interest groups responsive to the people?
An interest group entrepreneur organizes citizens into a formal group that agrees on a united purpose and then takes a leadership role in directing the group’s activities.
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42. The Impact of Interest Groups on Democratic Processes
Robert Michels coined the phrase "iron law of oligarchy" to describe when interest group leaders do not properly serve their members, and he argued that larger interest groups were especially susceptible to unresponsive or abusive leaderships.
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43. Characteristics of Successful Interest Groups
Membership Stability
In order to keep group membership stable, interest groups offer selective benefits to its members.
Benefits offered exclusively to members of an interest group
The Free Rider Problem
When a group lobbies for public goods or collective benefits that are so widespread that members and nonmembers alike receive them, incentives to join the group disappear.
iron law of oligarchy:
Theory that leaders in any organization eventually behave in their own self-interest, even at the expense of rank-and-file members; the larger the organization, the greater the likelihood that the leader will behave this way.
selective benefits:
Benefits offered exclusively to members of an interest group.
public goods:
Goods or benefits provided by government from which everyone benefits and from which no one can be excluded.
free rider problem:
Problem faced by interest groups when a collective benefit they provide is so widespread and diffuse that members and nonmembers alike receive it, reducing the incentive for joining the group.
Key Questions
Identify two interest groups with an enduring voice in American democracy.
How do groups perpetuate themselves at the expense of their mission? Can you give an example?
Would you join an interest group for its material benefits? Its solidary benefits? Its expressive benefits? What would make you decide to join?
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44. Characteristics of Successful Interest Groups
Membership Stability
The simple pleasure of being surrounded by people with similar interests and perspectives and who share professional or personal concerns is an example of a solidary benefit.
Being able to express an opinion in the larger social or political sphere can be considered an expressive benefit.
iron law of oligarchy:
Theory that leaders in any organization eventually behave in their own self-interest, even at the expense of rank-and-file members; the larger the organization, the greater the likelihood that the leader will behave this way.
selective benefits:
Benefits offered exclusively to members of an interest group.
public goods:
Goods or benefits provided by government from which everyone benefits and from which no one can be excluded.
free rider problem:
Problem faced by interest groups when a collective benefit they provide is so widespread and diffuse that members and nonmembers alike receive it, reducing the incentive for joining the group.
Key Questions
Identify two interest groups with an enduring voice in American democracy.
How do groups perpetuate themselves at the expense of their mission? Can you give an example?
Would you join an interest group for its material benefits? Its solidary benefits? Its expressive benefits? What would make you decide to join?
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45. Characteristics of Successful Interest Groups
Financial Stability
Internet makes fundraising easier
Membership dues
Creation of not-for-profit business (AARP)
Influence in the Public Sphere
Quoted in the press
Testifying before Congress
Key Questions
Imagine an AAYP, an American Association for Young People. What would it lobby for? What benefits would it offer?
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46. Characteristics of Successful Interest Groups
The AARP (formerly known as the American Association of Retired Persons) is among the most successful large-scale interest groups in American history; in 2013, it claimed a membership of 37 million.
Key Questions
Imagine an AAYP, an American Association for Young People. What would it lobby for? What benefits would it offer?
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