1. Chapter 6 Learning

2. Objectives 6.1 How We Learn Distinguish among three major types of learning theories focusing on behavior. 6.2 Classical Conditioning Identify the principles of classical conditioning within examples of associative learning. 6.3 Operant Conditioning Apply the principles of operant conditioning to examples of reinforcement learning. 6.4 A Cognitive Approach: Observational Learning Explain the evidence that learning can occur without any displayed behavior.

3. How We Learn Learning: A lasting change in knowledge or behavior based on experience Acquisition: Gaining new knowledge or behavior to use in the future

4. Behaviorism Training or learning as displayed by an animal or human’s behavior Classical conditioning: A neutral stimulus is associated with an unlearned stimulus and its automatic response Operant conditioning: Training emits behaviors to make them more likely to occur again

5. The Cognitive Approach The explanations of behavior based on changes in knowledge within the mind Observational learning: Acquiring new behaviors from watching a model

6. Summary of Behavioral Learning Theories

7. Pavlovian Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus: An unlearned signal that leads to an automatic, reflexive response Unconditioned response: A physiological behavior that is involuntarily elicited by a stimulus Neutral stimulus: An event or signal that causes no reflexive, automatic response Conditioned stimulus: A learned signal that predicts another stimulus is about to occur

8. Higher Order Conditioning Learning to associate a new, neutral stimulus with an already learned conditioned stimulus and conditioned response

9. Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery Extinction: The absence of a learned behavior Spontaneous recovery: After a rest, the reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response Resistance to extinction: Associations that are difficult to unlearn

10. Generalization and Discrimination Generalization: Learning to respond to stimuli similar to the one experienced Discrimination: Learning to see the difference between two similar stimuli

11. Conditioning and Emotional Responses

12. Classical Conditioning and Physiological Response Source: Data from Garcia, J., & Koelling, R. A. (1966). Relation of cue to consequence in avoidance learning. Psychonomic Science, 4, 123–124.

13. Contemporary Views of Classical Conditioning Learning to predict Biological and evolutionary predispositions

14. Applying Principles of Classical Conditioning Flooding: A therapy to treat phobias based on intense exposure to the feared stimulus Systematic desensitization: Treatment for phobia that practices relaxation to progressively more feared stimuli

15. Thorndike’s Law of Effect Behaviors that lead to positive outcomes are likely to be repeated

16. Skinner’s Experiments: Reinforcement Positive reinforcement: A consequence that creates a pleasant state, making behavior more likely to occur Negative reinforcement: A consequence that takes away an unpleasant state, making behavior more likely to occur Primary reinforcer: A reward that provides basic needs Secondary (conditioned) reinforce: A reward that can be exchanged for ones meeting basic needs

17. Operant Conditioning Acquisition and Shaping Generalization and Discrimination Extinction

18. Schedules of Reinforcement

19. Punishment

20. Contemporary Views of Operant Conditioning Learned helplessness Intrinsic motivation Biological influences

21. Applying Principles of Operant Conditioning Behavior modification: An operant conditioning program designed to achieve a goal Token economies: Situations in which easy-to-use secondary reinforcers are traded in for a meaningful reward Behavioral contract: The learner signs a written specification of an operant conditioning program

22. Tolman’s Latent Learning Figure 06.25: Tolman and Honzik's results showed that the HNR-R group (green line) quickly responded to reinforcement, performing better than the HR group (red line). Data from Tolman, E. C. (1948). Cognitive maps in rats and men. Psychological Review, 55, 189- 208; Tolman, E. C., & Honzik, C. H. (1930). Introduction and removal of reward and maze performance in rats. University of California Publications in Psychology, 4, 257-275.

23. Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Learning Theory Figure 06.26: The results of Bandura's study: Control (green) and Nonaggressive Model subject (red) showed less aggressive behaviors than the Aggressive Model subjects (blue). Source: Data from Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 575–582.

24. Bandura’s Basic Processes 1.Attention 2.Retention 3.Reproduction 4.Motivation

25. Biological Basis: Mirrors in the Brain Mirror neurons: Neurons in the frontal lobe that respond to motor behavior in oneself and in others Figure 06.27: Some of the same neurons fire when a monkey watches an action as when it performs the same action. © Kletr/ShutterStock, Inc.

26. Applying Principles of Observational Learning Observational learning greatly speeds the amount of information and behavior we can acquire by benefitting from the behavior of others.