1. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011) APA 2140 Introduction to Sport and Exercise Psychology © 2005 Human Kinetics © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc

2. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011) “Crafting a new vision and aligning people to it in a way that they will want to attain it” (Tichy, 2003) “The interpersonal influence that occurs when one person gains compliance from another toward achieving organizationally desired goals” (Tosi, Rizzo, & Carroll, 1986) “The process by which one individual guides a group toward a collective goal, action, or accomplishment” (Chemers, 1997)

3. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011)  The behavioural process of influencing individuals and groups toward set goals  Includes decision-making processes, motivational techniques, giving feedback, establishing interpersonal relationships, and directing the group of team confidently  A leader knows where the group is going (ex: goals and objectives) and provides the direction and resources to help it get there

4. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011) TYPES:  Formal leaders (ex: coaches, captains) are identified or named by authority  Informal leaders will emerge from the group through mutual respect and support from other members FUNCTIONS:  Ensures that the group works toward achieving their predetermined goals  Ensures that the group’s needs and interests are taken care of and/or considered

5. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011) 1.Trait Approach 2.Behavioural Approach 3.Interactional Approach

6. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011) « Leadership abilities are innate » Attempted to determine what characteristics or personality thraits were common to great leaders Attempted to determine what characteristics or personality thraits were common to great leaders  Believed that successful leaders have certain personality characteristics that make it likely for them to be leaders no matter what situation they are in  No particular set of traits seems to characterize effective leadership  Leaders have a variety of personality traits  Individuals should not be discouraged if they do not possess the same leadership skills as others in the field or from previous experience

7. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011) « Leaders are shaped and developed »  Focused on discovering universal behaviours of effective leaders  Believed that anyone can be taught to become a leader by simply learning the behaviours of other effective leaders  Argues that leaders are made, not born  Effective leaders have a tendency of demonstrating consideration (ex: friendship, respect, reliability, mutual trust) and initiative (ex: rules, objectives, norms)  Effective coaches are focused on interpersonal relationships and provide open communication, continuous feedback, direction, and structure Leaders can continue to grow in areas requiring refinement by implementing and/or modeling behaviours of other effective leaders Leaders can continue to grow in areas requiring refinement by implementing and/or modeling behaviours of other effective leaders

8. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011)  Leadership is developed based on interactions (traits and behaviours) as well as situations  No one set of characteristics ensures successful leadership  Effective leadership fits the specific situation  Leadership styles may change  A relationship-oriented leader focuses on developing and maintaining good interpersonal relationships  A task-oriented leader focuses on setting goals and getting the job done

9. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011) 1.Mediational Model of Leadership (Smoll & Smith, 1989) 2.Multidimensional Model of Leadership (Chelladurai, 1978)

10. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011)  An individual’s leadership behaviour is related to their personal characteristics, which is also influenced by situational factors and the perceived significance of these behaviours for others MEDITIONAL MODEL (SMITH & SMOLL)

11. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011) Coach personal characteristics MEDITIONAL MODEL (SMITH & SMOLL) Athlete personal characteristics Coach behaviours Athlete perceptions Athlete responses Situational factors Coach perceptions of athletes’ attitude

12. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011)  The core of the model stems from the continuum of leaders’ behaviours to the responses to the athletes’ perceptions  Includes three mediating variables: o Leader’s personal characteristics (goals, intentions, perceptions) o Athletes personal characteristics (age, gender, perceptions, motivation, anxiety, confidence) o Situational factors (nature of sport, level of competition, success rate, cohesion)  Leader’s behaviours is conditioned by their perceptions of athletes (i.e., behaviours change depending on the audience) MEDITIONAL MODEL (SMITH & SMOLL)

13. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011) Situational characteristics Leader characteristics Preferred behaviours Individual performance Antecedents Consequences Leader behaviour Required behaviour Actual behaviour Member characteristics Individual satisfaction

14. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011)  Guiding principle is that athletes’ satisfaction and performance are the result of the interaction between three elements: 1. Required leadership behaviours (those that conform to the norms establish by the organization) 2. Athletes’ preferred leadership behaviours 3. Leader’s behaviours (ex: the behaviours adopted by the leader, regardless of the norms of the organization and/or athletes’ preferences) MULTIDIMENSIONAL MODEL (CHELLADURAI)

15. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011)  Athletes perform better and are generally more satisfied when the overt and covert behaviours of their coaches conform to their preferred behaviour styles  A leader’s behaviour will either generate satisfaction or discontentment  Leaders should consider their members’ preferences and motivations (i.e., positivity, approachability, decision-making, etc) in order to optimize their performances MULTIDIMENSIONAL MODEL (CHELLADURAI)

16. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011)  Developed to measure leadership behaviours (including athletes’ preferences, athletes’ perceptions, and leaders’ perceptions)  The LSS has five dimensions: 1. Training (instructional behaviours) 2. Democratic behaviours (decision-making style) 3. Autocratic behaviours (decision-making style) 4. Social support (motivational tendencies) 5. Positive feedback (motivational tendencies)

17. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011)  Age and maturity  Gender  Nationality  Type of sport

18. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011) Age and maturation  Older athletes and/or more experienced athletes prefer an autocratic leadership style, for the emphasis on social support  Preferences for training and instruction decrease from elementary to high school, but increases again during post- secondary levels Gender  Male athletes prefer an autocratic leadership style  Female athletes prefer a democratic leadership style ANTECEDENTS OF LEADERSHIP (cont’d)

19. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011) Nationality  Cultural origins can influence leadership preferences (United States, Canada, China, Russia, etc.) ANTECEDENTS OF LEADERSHIP (cont’d) Type of sport  Athletes who play highly interactive team sports (i.e., football, basketball) prefer an autocratic coaching style more so than athletes in co-acting sport (i.e., bowling, tennis)

20. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011) Psychological characteristics:  Athletes with strong external attentional focus typically show a preference for training and instruction  Athletes with strong external attentional focus prefer autocratic behaviours  Women with higher levels of anxiety prefer behaviours emphasizing social support ANTECEDENTS OF LEADERSHIP (cont’d)

21. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011)  Satisfaction  Confidence  Cohesion  Performance  Motivation

22. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011) Satisfaction:  High frequencies of rewarding behaviour, social support, and democratic decision-making are generally associated with high satisfaction among athletes Confidence:  Strong coach-athlete relationships are crucial for the development (and maintenance) of confidence  Two-way coach-athlete communication is one of the most important elements of establishing trust and confidence CONSEQUENCES OF LEADERSHIP (cont’d)

23. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011) Cohesion:  Leaders emphasizing instruction, training, democratic behaviours, social support, and positive feedback typically results in superior levels of cohesion within teams  Leaders who demonstrate task-oriented behaviours and feedback are associated with more cohesive groups CONSEQUENCES OF LEADERSHIP (cont’d)

24. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011) Performance:  After a loss or defeat, individuals and/or teams seek leaders that demonstrate social support in order to maintain confidence and motivation  When a coach reports developing the same decision style that his or her athletes prefer and perceive, coaching effectiveness is rather highly Motivation:  Autocratic style is associated with lower levels of intrinsic motivation and perceptions of competencies CONSEQUENCES OF LEADERSHIP (cont’d)

25. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011) THE ORIGIN AND FLOW OF ENERGY

26. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011) © Jim Loehr LOEHR’S MODEL OF ENGAGEMENT

27. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011) CONSISTENT CORE COMPETENCIES Theme 1: Spiritual leadership  Clearly define the team mission, goals, and vision  Recruit commitment and motivation by aligning team and individual values  Institute enforce ethical standards and a code of conduct that govern both leader and team behavior Theme 2: Mental leadership  Ability to focus and think clearly under pressure  Effectively manage time  Have self-awareness

28. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011) CONSISTENT CORE COMPETENCIES (cont’d) Theme 3: Emotional leadership  Communicate effectively  Instill hope, and confidence in teammates  Demonstrate empathy, humility, and compassion  Instill in others a sense of challenge, opportunity, and excitement when facing adversity Theme 4: Physical leadership  Behave in accordance with personal and team values  Demonstrate integrity (walk the talk)  Be accountable and hold others accountable and clear

29. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011) ORDINARY VS. EXTRAORDINARY  Adversity is the true test of leadership  A crisis can become powerful forces of disengagement  An important aspect of effective leadership is teaching individuals how to remain fully engaged in spite of challenges, stress, negative outcomes, and/or difficult situations

30. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011) CompetencyOrdinary responseExtraordinary response Spiritual Mental Emotional Physical ORDINARY VS. EXTRAORDINARY (cont’d)

31. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011) STORYTELLING AND LEADERSHIP  The reality we experience is filtered by the meaning and interpretation we place on events  A leader’s job is to tell a story that inspires and challenges team members  Loehr suggests three rules for storytelling in adversity: 1. The story should reflect the leader`s and the team`s core values 2. The story should represent the truth as fully as possible 3. The story should leave those who are being led with a sense of hope

32. APA 2140 – Week #10 (November 11, 2011) LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES  From the beginning, make leadership a key objective  Constantly encourage and reinforce leadership behaviors  Use team crisis for teachable moments  Provide concrete examples  Provide numerous leadership opportunities  Recognize outstanding leadership  Pay attention to sportsmanship, character, honesty, and respect  Make character and personal development a priority  Connect the hard work and sacrifices to the broader arena of life