1. Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function within this chapter:
tissue types
thermoregulation
metabolism

2. Overview: Diverse Forms, Common Challenges
Anatomy is the study of the biological form of an organism
Physiology is the study of the biological functions an organism performs
The comparative study of animals reveals that form and function are closely correlated
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3. how are the jackrabbit’s ears a product of the laws of physics?
Figure 40.1 How does a jackrabbit keep from overheating? 3

4. Convergent evolution Seal Penguin Tuna
Figure 40.2 Convergent evolution in fast swimmers.
Penguin
Tuna 4

5. Theme of this unit: Focus of this chapter:
Life forms are machines that regulate homeostasis within a specific environment
Focus of this chapter:
Exchange with the environment
Regulating that exchange

6. Concept 40.1: Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organization
Laws of physics set limits on biological morphologies.
Provide and example.
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7. Video: Shark Eating Seal
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8. Video: Galápagos Sea Lion
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9. Video: Hydra Eating Daphnia
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10. Exchange with the environment
A single-celled protist living in water has a sufficient surface area of plasma membrane to service its entire volume of cytoplasm
VS.
Multicellular organisms with a saclike body plan have body walls that are only two cells thick, facilitating diffusion of materials
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11. Mouth Gastrovascular cavity Exchange Exchange Exchange 0.1 mm 1 mm
How do complex animals exchange resources and waste with their environment?
Mouth
Gastrovascular
cavity
Exchange
Exchange
Exchange
Figure 40.3 Contact with the environment.
0.1 mm
1 mm
(a) Single cell
(b) Two layers of cells 11

12. Internal exchange surfaces of complex animals
External environment
CO2
Food O2
Mouth
Animal
body
250 m B l o d
Respiratory
system
Lung tissue (SEM)
Heart
Cells
Digestive
system
Interstitial
fluid
Nutrients
Circulatory
system
Figure 40.4 Internal exchange surfaces of complex animals.
Excretory
system
100 m
50 m
Lining of small
intestine (SEM)
Blood vessels in
kidney (SEM)
Anus
Unabsorbed
matter (feces)
Metabolic waste products
(nitrogenous waste) 12

13. In vertebrates, the space between cells is filled with interstitial fluid, which allows for the movement of material into and out of cells
Blood is contained within vessels
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14. Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans
Most animals are composed of specialized cells organized into tissues that have different functions
Tissues make up organs, which together make up organ systems
Some organs, such as the pancreas, belong to more than one organ system
Benefit of complex body plans:
helps an animal living in a variable environment to maintain a relatively stable internal environment
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15. Table 40.1
Table 40.1 Organ Systems in Mammals 15

16. Exploring Structure and Function in Animal Tissues
Tissues are classified into four main categories:
Epithelial
Connective
Muscle
Nervous
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17. 1. Epithelial Tissue Stratified squamous epithelium Pseudostratified
Figure 40.5aa
1. Epithelial Tissue
Stratified squamous
epithelium
Figure 40.5 Exploring: Structure and Function in Animal Tissues
Pseudostratified
columnar
epithelium
Cuboidal
epithelium
Simple columnar
epithelium
Simple squamous
epithelium 17

18. Apical surface Basal surface Basal lamina 40 m Polarity of epithelia
Figure 40.5ab
Apical surface
Basal surface
Basal lamina
40 m
Figure 40.5 Exploring: Structure and Function in Animal Tissues
Polarity of epithelia 18

19. What makes gummy bears so deliciously chewy?

20. 2. Connective Tissue
Connective tissue mainly binds and supports other tissues
Most diverse tissue type
It contains sparsely packed cells scattered throughout an extracellular matrix
The matrix consists of fibers in a liquid, jellylike, or solid foundation
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21. There are three types of connective tissue fiber, all made of protein:
Collagenous fibers provide strength and flexibility
Found in: tendon, ligament, skin, cornea, cartilage, bone, blood vessels, gut, and intervertebral disc.
Elastic fibers stretch and snap back to their original length
Found in: extracellular matrix
Reticular fibers join connective tissue to adjacent tissues
Found in: liver, bone marrow, lymphatic organs
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22. Connective tissue contains cells, including
Fibroblasts that secrete the protein of extracellular fibers
Macrophages that are involved in the immune system
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23. Connective Tissue Loose connective tissue Blood…why? Cartilage
Figure 40.5ba
Connective Tissue
Loose connective tissue
Blood…why?
Collagenous fiber
Plasma
White
blood cells
120 m
55 m
Elastic fiber
Cartilage
Red blood cells
Fibrous connective tissue
Chondrocytes
100 m
Figure 40.5 Exploring: Structure and Function in Animal Tissues
30 m
Chondroitin sulfate
Nuclei
Bone
Adipose tissue
Central
canal
Fat droplets
700 m
150 m
Osteon 23

24. Cartilage is a strong and flexible support material
In vertebrates, the fibers and foundation combine to form six major types of connective tissue:
Loose connective tissue binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place
Cartilage is a strong and flexible support material
Fibrous connective tissue is found in tendons, which attach muscles to bones, and ligaments, which connect bones at joints
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25. Adipose tissue stores fat for insulation and fuel
Blood is composed of blood cells and cell fragments in blood plasma
Bone is mineralized and forms the skeleton
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26. 3. Muscle Tissue comes in three types:
Skeletal muscle, or striated muscle, is responsible for voluntary movement
Smooth muscle is responsible for involuntary body activities
Cardiac muscle is responsible for contraction of the heart
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27. Muscle Tissue Skeletal muscle Smooth muscle Cardiac muscle Nuclei
Figure 40.5ca
Muscle Tissue
Skeletal muscle
Nuclei
Muscle
fiber
Sarcomere
100 m
Smooth muscle
Cardiac muscle
Figure 40.5 Exploring: Structure and Function in Animal Tissues
Nucleus
Muscle fibers
25 m
Nucleus
Intercalated disk
50 m 27

28. 4. Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue senses stimuli and transmits signals throughout the animal
Nervous tissue contains
Neurons, or nerve cells, that transmit nerve impulses
Glial cells, or glia, that help nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons
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29. Nervous Tissue Neurons Glia Glia Neuron: Dendrites Cell body Axons of
Figure 40.5da
Nervous Tissue
Neurons
Glia
Glia
15 m
Neuron:
Dendrites
Cell body
Axons of
neurons
Axon
Figure 40.5 Exploring: Structure and Function in Animal Tissues
Blood
vessel
40 m
(Fluorescent LM)
(Confocal LM) 29

30. Control and coordination within a body depend on: The Endocrine System
Pros
Cons
The Nervous System
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31. Figure 40.6
Figure 40.6 Signaling in the endocrine and nervous systems 31

32. The endocrine system
The endocrine system transmits chemical signals called hormones to receptive cells throughout the body via blood
A hormone may affect one or more regions throughout the body
Hormones are relatively slow acting, but can have long-lasting effects

33. The Nervous System
The nervous system transmits information between specific locations
The information conveyed depends on a signal’s pathway, not the type of signal
Nerve signal transmission is very fast
Nerve impulses can be received by neurons, muscle cells, endocrine cells, and exocrine cells
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34. Concept 40.2: Feedback control maintains the internal environment in many animals
Animals manage their internal environment by regulating or conforming to the external environment
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35. Regulating and Conforming
A regulator uses internal control mechanisms to moderate internal change in the face of external, environmental fluctuation
A conformer allows its internal condition to vary with certain external changes
Animals may regulate some environmental variables while conforming to others
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36. Figure 40.7
Figure 40.7 The relationship between body and environmental temperatures in an aquatic temperature regulator and an aquatic temperature conformer. 36

37. Homeostasis
Organisms use homeostasis to maintain a “steady state” or internal balance regardless of external environment
What is maintained at a constant level in humans?
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38. Animation: Negative Feedback Right-click slide / select “Play”
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39. Animation: Positive Feedback Right-click slide / select “Play”
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40. Mechanisms of homeostasis
Figure 40.8 A nonliving example of temperature regulation: control of room temperature. 40

41. Circadian rhythms are an example of alteration of homeostatic conditions
Figure 40.9 Human circadian rhythm. 41

42. Homeostasis can adjust to changes in external environment, a process called acclimatization:
What are some conditions to which we will acclimate?
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43. Concept 40.3: Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation involve form, function, and behavior
Thermoregulation is the process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a tolerable range
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44. Endothermy and Ectothermy
Endothermic animals generate heat by metabolism; birds and mammals are endotherms
Ectothermic animals gain heat from external sources; ectotherms include most invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, and nonavian reptiles
What are the pros and cons of each?
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45. Figure 40.10
Figure Endothermy and ectothermy. 45

46. Variation in Body Temperature
The body temperature of a poikilotherm varies with its environment
The body temperature of a homeotherm is relatively constant
The relationship between heat source and body temperature is not fixed (that is, not all poikilotherms are ectotherms)
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47. Organisms exchange heat by four physical processes:
Figure Heat exchange between an organism and its environment. 47

48. Five adaptations help animals thermoregulate:
Heat regulation in mammals often involves the integumentary system: skin, hair, and nails
Five adaptations help animals thermoregulate:
Insulation
Circulatory adaptations
Cooling by evaporative heat loss
Behavioral responses
Adjusting metabolic heat production
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49. Circulatory Adaptations
Regulation of blood flow near the body surface significantly affects thermoregulation
Many endotherms and some ectotherms can alter the amount of blood flowing between the body core and the skin
In vasodilation, blood flow in the skin increases, facilitating heat loss
In vasoconstriction, blood flow in the skin decreases, lowering heat loss
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50. Figure 40.12 Countercurrent heat exchangers.
Countercurrent heat exchangers transfer heat between fluids flowing in opposite directions and reduce heat loss 50

51. Thermoregulation behaviour
Figure Thermoregulatory behavior in a dragonfly. 51

52. Adjusting Metabolic Heat Production
Thermogenesis is the adjustment of metabolic heat production to maintain body temperature
Thermogenesis is increased by muscle activity such as moving or shivering
Nonshivering thermogenesis takes place when hormones cause mitochondria to increase their metabolic activity
Some ectotherms can also shiver to increase body temperature
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53. Burmese python
Figure Inquiry: How does a Burmese python generate heat while incubating eggs? 53

54. Preflight warm-up in the hawkmoth
Figure Preflight warm-up in the hawkmoth. 54

55. Acclimatization in Thermoregulation
Birds and mammals can vary their insulation to acclimatize to seasonal temperature changes
When temperatures are subzero, some ectotherms produce “antifreeze” compounds to prevent ice formation in their cells
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56. The thermostatic function of the hypothalamus in human thermoregulation.
Figure The thermostatic function of the hypothalamus in human thermoregulation. 56

57. Concept 40.4: Energy requirements are related to animal size, activity, and environment
Bioenergetics is the overall flow and transformation of energy in an animal
Energy Allocation and Use
Energy-containing molecules from food are usually used to make ATP, which powers cellular work
After the needs of staying alive are met, remaining food molecules can be used in biosynthesis
Biosynthesis includes body growth and repair, synthesis of storage material such as fat, and production of gametes
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58. Bioenergetics of an animal: an overview.
Figure Bioenergetics of an animal: an overview. 58

59. Quantifying Energy Use
Metabolic rate is the amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time
Metabolic rate can be determined by
An animal’s heat loss
The amount of oxygen consumed or carbon dioxide produced
How does the average human evaluate their metabolism?
Why is this potentially inaccurate?
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60. Measuring the rate of oxygen consumption by a swimming shark.
Figure Measuring the rate of oxygen consumption by a swimming shark. 60

61. Minimum Metabolic Rate and Thermoregulation
Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the metabolic rate of an endotherm at rest at a “comfortable” temperature
Standard metabolic rate (SMR) is the metabolic rate of an ectotherm at rest at a specific temperature
Both rates assume a nongrowing, fasting, and nonstressed animal
Ectotherms have much lower metabolic rates than endotherms of a comparable size
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62. Influences on Metabolic Rate
Metabolic rates are affected by many factors besides whether an animal is an endotherm or ectotherm
Two of these factors are size and activity
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63. Size and Metabolic Rate
Metabolic rate is proportional to body mass to the power of three quarters (m3/4)
Smaller animals have higher metabolic rates per gram than larger animals
The higher metabolic rate of smaller animals leads to a higher oxygen delivery rate, breathing rate, heart rate, and greater (relative) blood volume, compared with a larger animal
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64. Figure 40.19
Figure The relationship of metabolic rate to body size. 64

65. Energy budgets of four animals
Figure Energy budgets for four animals. 65

66. Torpor and Energy Conservation
Torpor is a physiological state in which activity is low and metabolism decreases
What would motivate an animals to go into a state of torpor?
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67. Levels of two transcripts in an attempt to determine whether the circadian rhythm continues to run during hibernation. What conclusions can be made?
Figure Inquiry: What happens to the circadian clock during hibernation? 67

68. Long-term torpor is called hibernation
Summer torpor, called estivation, enables animals to survive long periods of high temperatures and scarce water
Daily torpor is exhibited by many small mammals and birds and seems adapted to feeding patterns
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69. Review
Figure 40.UN01 Summary figure, Concept 40.2 69

70. Testing your understanding of the big picture
Draw a model of the control circuit(s) required for driving an automobile at a fairly constant speed over a hilly road, or for a human controlling temperature within their body. Indicate each feature that represents a sensor, stimulus, or response.

71. Figure 40.UN02
Figure 40.UN02 Appendix A: answer to Test Your Understanding, question 8 71