1. Module 17, 18, 19 Introduction to Learning

2. Learning
…the relatively permanent change in a subject’s behavior to a given situation brought about by his (or her) repeated experiences in that situation, provided that the behavior change cannot be explained on the basis of native response tendencies, maturation, or temporary states of the subject (e.g., fatigue, drugs, etc.).

3. Learning
“A relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience”

4. Are These Examples of Learning? Why or Why Not?
1. The cessation of thumb sucking by an infant.
2. The acquisition of language in children.
3. A computer program generates random opening moves for its first 100 chess games and tabulates the outcomes of those games. Starting with the 101st game, the computer uses those tabulations to influence its choice of opening moves.
4. A worm is placed in a T maze. The left arm of the maze is brightly lit and dry; the right arm is dim and moist. On the first 10 trials, the worm turns right 7 times. On the next 10 trials, the worm turns right all 10 times.

5. Examples of Learning?
5. Ethel stays up late the night before the October GRE administration and consumes large quantities of licit and illicit pharmacological agents. Her combined (verbal plus quantitative) score is 410. The night before the December GRE administration, she goes to bed early after a wholesome dinner and a glass of milk. Her score increases to Is the change in scores due to learning? Is the change in pretest regimen due to learning?
6. A previously psychotic patient is given Dr. K’s patented phrenological surgery and no longer exhibits any psychotic behaviors.
7. A lanky zinnia plant is pinched back and begins to grow denser foliage and flowers.

6. Examples of Learning?
8. MYCIN is a computer program that does a rather good job of diagnosing human infections by consulting a large database of rules it has been given. If we add another rule to the database, has MYCIN learned something?
9. After pondering over a difficult puzzle for hours, Jane finally figures it out. From that point on, she can solve all similar puzzles in the time it takes her to read them.
10. After 30 years of smoking two packs a day, Zeb throws away his cigarettes and never smokes again.

7. Watson’s Extreme Environmentalism
“Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own special world to bring them up in, and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to be any type of specialist I might select - doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.”
John Broadus Watson, 1928

8. Types of Learning Observational Learning Associative Learning
watch & learn
Associative Learning
link two events
Classical Conditioning
associate two stimuli and anticipate events
Operant Conditioning
associate our behavior and its consequence and act according to our best interest
Chapter outline

9. Observational Learning
We can learn from other’s experiences and examples.

10. Associative Learning Linking two events that occur close together
Someone is shot. First you hear the sound of the shot, then see the blood.
You associate guns with danger – the linking of events..

11. Associative Learning

12. Associative Learning

13. Associative Learning If you’ve seen the movie, Jaws, you probably
had a feeling that danger was just around the
corner. This is “associative learning.”

14. Conditioning – the process of learning associations
Classical – associating two stimuli and thus anticipating events.

15. Classical Conditioning
We learn to associate two stimuli

16. Classical and Operant Conditioning
We learn to associate two stimuli and thus anticipate events.
Operant:
We learn to associate a response and its consequence and thus repeat acts followed by rewards and avoid acts followed by punishment.

17. Classical Conditioning
Ideas of classical conditioning originate from old philosophical theories. However, it was the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who elucidated classical conditioning. His work provided a basis for later behaviorists like John Watson.
Preview Question 2: How does classical conditioning demonstrate learning by association?
Sovfoto
Ivan Pavlov ( )

18. Ivan Pavlov Father of Classical Conditioning…
…noticed that when he put food (UCS) in a
dog’s mouth, the dog would salivate (UCR).

19. So…he added a neutral stimulus, which became the (CS) and produced a (CR)

20. Classical Conditioning Explained

21. Condition your Friends!!!

22. Classical Conditioning Terms
UCS – unconditioned stimulus
UCR – unconditioned response
CS - conditioned stimulus
CR – conditioned response
Extinction – diminishing a conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced
Generalization – once a response has been conditioned, similar stimuli elicit similar responses

23. Pavlov’s Apparatus
Figure 5.3 from:
Kassin, S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Source:
Harness and mouth tube help keep dog in a consistent position to gather uncontaminated saliva samples

24. Before Conditioning Before Stimuli Are Paired
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) elicits Unconditioned Response (UCR)
Meat elicits salivation
Neutral stimulus (NS) elicits no particular response
The bell does not lead to a particular response

25. During Conditioning
Conditioning: Neutral Stimulus (NS) is paired with the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
Bell rings, then meat powder is delivered
This pairing happens a number of times (trials)

26. After Conditioning
After several trials, when the bell rings, the dog salivates (NO FOOD NEEDED!)
The Bell is now a Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Salivation is now a Conditioned Response (CR)

27. Pavlov’s Classic Experiment

28. Classical Conditioning Terms
Acquisition
Formation of a learned response to a stimulus through presentation of an unconditioned stimulus
Extinction
Elimination of a learned response by removal of the unconditioned stimulus
Generalization
When the classically conditioned reaction occurs to other (similar) stimuli

29. Acquisition
Acquisition is the initial learning stage in classical conditioning in which an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus takes place.
In most cases, for conditioning to occur, the neutral stimulus needs to come before the unconditioned stimulus.
The time in between the two stimuli should be about half a second.

30. Acquisition
The CS needs to come half a second before the US for acquisition to occur.

31. Extinction
When the US (food) does not follow the CS (tone), CR (salivation) begins to decrease and eventually causes extinction.

32. Spontaneous Recovery
After a rest period, an extinguished CR (salivation) spontaneously recovers, but if the CS (tone) persists alone, the CR becomes extinct again.

33. Stimulus Generalization
Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS is called generalization. Pavlov conditioned the dog’s salivation (CR) by using miniature vibrators (CS) on the thigh. When he subsequently stimulated other parts of the dog’s body, salivation dropped.

34. Stimulus Discrimination
Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

35. Extending Pavlov’s Understanding
Pavlov and Watson considered consciousness, or mind, unfit for the scientific study of psychology. However, they underestimated the importance of cognitive processes and biological constraints.
Preview Question 4: Do cognitive processes and biological constraints affect classical conditioning?

36. Cognitive Processes
Early behaviorists believed that learned behaviors of various animals could be reduced to mindless mechanisms.
However, later behaviorists suggested that animals learn the predictability of a stimulus, meaning they learn expectancy or awareness of a stimulus (Rescorla & Wagner, 1972).

37. Biological Predispositions
Pavlov and Watson believed that laws of learning were similar for all animals. Therefore, a pigeon and a person do not differ in their learning.
However, behaviorists later suggested that learning is constrained by an animal’s biology.

38. Biological Predispositions
Garcia showed that the duration between the CS and the US may be long (hours), but yet result in conditioning. A biologically adaptive CS (taste) led to conditioning but other stimuli (sight or sound) did not.
Courtesy of John Garcia
John Garcia

39. Biological Predispositions
Even humans can develop classically to conditioned nausea.

40. Pavlov’s Legacy
Pavlov’s greatest contribution to psychology is isolating elementary behaviors from more complex ones through objective scientific procedures.
Preview Question 5: Why is Pavlov’s work important?
Ivan Pavlov
( )

41. Applications of Classical Conditioning
Former crack cocaine users should avoid cues (people, places) associated with previous drug use.
Through classical conditioning, a drug (plus its taste) that affects the immune response may cause the taste of the drug to invoke the immune response.

42. Applications of Classical Conditioning
Watson used classical conditioning procedures to develop advertising campaigns for a number of organizations, including Maxwell House, making the “coffee break” an American custom.
Brown Brothers
John B. Watson

43. What Can a Hippo learn?

44. Classical conditioning links horror movie music to fear
Scary Music
Fear
Gore
UCR NS
UCS

45. Classical conditioning links horror movie music to fear
Scary Music
Fear
Gore
UCR NS
UCS
Scary Music
Fear CR CS

46. Learning Factors Number of pairings
Reliability of CS in predicting UCS
Occurrence of CS just before UCS

47. Classical Conditioning
UCS
(passionate
kiss)
UCR
(sexual
arousal) CS
(onion
breath) CR
Kiss)

48. Classical Conditioning
Strength
of CR
Pause
Acquisition
(CS+UCS)
Extinction
(CS alone)
Spontaneous
recovery of CR

49. Timing of CS before UCS

50. Prepared Classical Conditioning
Organisms seem predisposed to make certain associations
e. g., nausea creates taste aversions
Exp: drinking
Exp: Garcia

51. Garcia’s rats Bright light  Shocks Bright Light  Nausea
Funny Water  Shocks
Funny Water  Nausea
Conditions 1 and 4 easiest for conditioning to occur. Why?

52. Classical conditioning and Ads
Are you conditioned to
Respond to the following?

53. Men: What do you see? What do you think?
Women: What do you see? What do you think?

54. Men? Women?
Have we been conditioned or is it a natural reaction?

56. Men? Women?
What are you thinking?
Are you conditioned?

58. Men? Women? What do you see? Why is this offensive to women?
Why is this exciting to men?

59. Classical conditioning and Ads

60. Classical conditioning and Ads

61. Classical conditioning and Ads

62. Classical conditioning and Ads

63. Classical conditioning and Ads

64. What is this?

65. Classical conditioning and Ads

66. Classical conditioning and Ads

67. Classical conditioning and Ads

68. Operant & Classical Conditioning
1. Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS and US). Operant conditioning, on the other hand, forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events.
Preview Question 6: What is operant conditioning, and how does it differ from classical conditioning?

69. Operant & Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning involves respondent behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a certain stimulus. Operant conditioning involves operant behavior, a behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing stimuli.
Classical = automatic response
Operant = deliberate behavior

70. OPERANT CONDITIONING

71. Operant Conditioning Learning associations between actions and
consequences

72. Operant Conditioning We learn to associate a response and its con-
sequence

73. Operant Conditioning Behavior Increases chances of followed by
Reinforcement

74. Types of Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement
adds good things
Examples: Money, Praise, Food
Negative Reinforcement
takes bad things away
Examples: removing pain, toothache, hunger

75. Types of Reinforcement
Increases Behavior
Add Stimulus
Positive Reinforcement
(+ good things)
Remove Stimulus
Negative Reinforcement
(-bad things)
Similar to Table 5.1 in
Kassin, S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

76. Types of Reinforcement
Increases Behavior
Decreases Behavior
Add Stimulus
Positive Reinforcement
Positive Punishment
Remove stimulus
Negative reinforcement
Negative Punishment
Similar to Table 5.1 in
Kassin, S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

77. Negative Reinforcement
Some examples of negative reinforcers – reducing or removing the unpleasant stimulus
Taking an aspirin to relieve a headache

78. Negative Reinforcement
Smoking in order to relieve anxiety

79. Negative Reinforcement
Feigning a stomach ache to avoid something you don’t want to face.

80. Negative Reinforcement
Hurrying home in winter to escape the cold

81. Negative Reinforcement
Putting on your safety belt to stop the buzzing

82. Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement has occurred when three conditions have been met:
A consequence is presented dependent
on a behavior.
2. The behavior becomes more likely to
occur.
3. The behavior becomes more likely to occur because and only because the consequence is presented dependent on the behavior.

83. Positive Reinforcement
Study for a test, earn an A on the exam.

84. Positive Reinforcement
Go to work, get paid.

85. Positive Reinforcement
New hairstyle, positive attention and compliments.

86. EXAMPLE of Operant Learning
Every night after dinner, Pat sits down to watch TV, but before long Pat’s dog Juno is barking and whining. Pats gives him a toy to chew on, and he quiets down. Now he whines every night until Pat gives him a toy.
How is Juno’s behavior being learned?

87. 1. What is the Behavior?
Barking and whining after dinner

88. 2. What is the consequence of the behavior?
i.e. What happens when Juno barks and whines?
Juno gets a toy.

89. 3. Is this consequence adding or removing something?
Adding something – the toy.

90. 4. Is it positive or negative (a pleasant or unpleasant consequence)?

91. 5. Does this consequence increase or decrease the likelihood of Juno barking and whining in the future.
Increase So, is this punishment or reinforcement? Reinforcement

92. Juno is learning to bark and whine after dinner through POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT

93. Law of Effect Underlies all of operant conditioning
“Behavior that is rewarded will be repeated”

94. Types of Punishment Positive Punishment Adds bad things
Example: The driver's speeding results in a ticket and a fine
Negative Punishment
Takes good things away
Example: a child talks back, is not allowed to watch television

95. Reinforcement versus punishment
What works better, reinforcement or punishment?

96. Try this Test
1.Go to this site:
2. Take the test.
3. Score the test.
4. Hand it in.
5. Bring your questions to class.

97. Operant vs. Classical Conditioning

98. Thorndike and Puzzle Boxes
Cats are put into puzzle boxes
Slightly hungry
Food outside

99. How do you think this baby was conditioned?

100. Thorndike and Puzzle Boxes
Cats put into puzzle boxes
Slightly hungry
Food outside
Time to escape decreased over attempts

101. Thorndike and Puzzle Boxes
Cats put into puzzle boxes
Slightly Hungry
Food outside
Time to escape decreased over attempts
Behaviors that worked to escape were repeated
Other behaviors decreased

102. Shaping
Rewarding successively closer approximations of a desired behavior
Useful for teaching new behaviors
Exp: puppy paper training

103. Shaping A Rat 1) The rat is trained to press a lever to get a reward:
2) The rat has to push a rod and then press the lever to get a reward:
3) The rat learns to lift a marble, push a rod and press the lever to get a reward:
Now the rat performs all three behaviors

104. Rate of Reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement: reward after every response
Intermittent reinforcement: only sometimes reward
Intermittent works better
kids and temper tantrums, icky boyfriends/girlfriends

105. Reinforcement Schedules
Fixed-Ratio
Variable-Ratio
Fixed-Interval
Variable-Interval

106. Reinforcement Schedules
Fixed Ratio – reward after a set number of responses
Variable Ratio - reward after a varying number of responses
Fixed Interval -reward after a predictable time
Variable Interval - reward after an unpredictable time interval

107. Schedules of Reinforcement
Ratio- every so many
Interval – every so often
Can be:
After an unpredictable number
After a random amount of time

108. Fixed-Ratio Schedule Reward after a set number of responses
Ex: Frequent shopper at Subway – get free sandwich after 8 purchases
Ex: Paid per piece of work produced

109. Variable-Ratio Schedules
Reward after a varying number of responses
Ex: “Good job”
Ex: Boyfriend or girlfriend returns your phone call

110. Variable-Ratio Schedule

111. Fixed-Interval Schedule
Reward after a specific time interval
Ex: Reward at the end of a half hour of studying
Ex: Cake is ready in the oven
Ex: Jell-O is set
Ex. Your favorite t.v. show is on.

112. Fixed-Interval Schedule

113. Variable-Interval Schedule
Reward after an unpredictable time interval
Slow, steady responding.
Ex: Fishing, cast your hook and wait.

114. Variable-Interval Schedule

115. Schedules of Reinforcement
Steeper lines mean higher response rates
Ratio schedules produce higher response rates than interval schedules
Figure 5.12 from:
Kassin, S. (2001). Psychology, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Source:

116. Extinction
More rapid to fixed ratio than variable ratio reinforcement

117. Thus, best is variable ratio
An example of variable ratio…

120. Work Preference Inventory Handout 19-5
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation
To assess your intrinsic motivation, reverse your scores (1 = 4, 2 = 3, 3 = 2, 4 = 1) for items 9 and 14 and then add the numbers in response to items 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 14, 17, 20, 23, 26, 27, 28, and 30.
To assess extrinsic motivation reverse your scores (1 = 4, 2 = 3, 3 = 2, 4 = 1) for items 1, 16, and 22 and then add the numbers in response to items 1, 2, 4, 6, 10, 12, 15, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22, 24, 25, and 29.

121. Work Preference Inventory Handout
Scores on each subscale can range from 15 to 60, with higher scores reflecting greater intrinsic and greater extrinsic motivation, respectively.
Mean scores for both male and female students are approximately 45 and 39 on the intrinsic and extrinsic scales, respectively.
Research suggests little correlation between scores on the two scales.

122. Observational Learning
Learning without direct reinforcement

123. Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study
Children exposed to either aggressive, non-aggressive, or no adult model
Children are made to feel frustrated
Children then taken to room with Bobo doll and their behavior observed
Children exposed to aggressive model much more aggressive than other children.

124. Whew!!
Now you
Are a
“Learning”
Genius