1. Levels of Analysis (LoA)
Biological
Cognitive
Sociocultural

2. Biological LoA Focuses on physiology and genetics
Gender differences via genetic makeup
XY and XX chromosomes
Gender differences from the impact of hormones
testosterone and estrogen

3. Cognitive LoA Focuses on mental processes Memory Thinking Perception
Attention
Gender differences via gender schema theory
Social cognition
Gender stereotypes

4. Sociocultural LoA
Focuses on how environment and culture impact behavior and thinking
Impact of cultural definitions and roles for our mental representations of each gender
Gender differences explained through social learning theory
Watching individuals of the same sex for behavior cues

5. Biological Level of Analysis
physiology and genetics

6. Biological LoA: Physiology & Behavior
Biology can affect cognition and cognition can affect biology…relationship is bidirectional
Physiological factors that impact behavior:
Brain processes
Neurotransmitters
Hormones
Genes
Physiology does not work alone since environmental stimuli influence our behavior
Stressful experiences
Attractive person passing by
Brain damage caused by trauma

7. Goal of IB Psychology Taking a holistic approach to human behavior
Interactionist Approach: Both sides of nature (biology) vs. nurture (environment) argument.

8. Principles of Human Behavior (Biological LoA)
Behavior can be innate since it is genetically based
Evolution…key role in behavior
Animal research can provide insight to human behavior
Much research done with animals
Biology correlates with behavior
Links between specific biological factors and specific behaviors

9. Reductionist Approach
Micro-level research; breaking down complex human behavior into simple parts.
Criticized for being over simplistic but allows us to gain detailed knowledge of human behavior
Important because it allows understanding of several factors that influence one behavior

10. Impact of Neurotransmitters on Behavior
Influences mood, memory, sexual arousal, and mental illness
Acetylcholine
Muscle contraction, helps with development of memory in hippocampus
Dopamine
Voluntary movement, learning, feelings of pleasure
Norepinephrine (noradrenalin)
Arousal, alertness, stimulation of sympathetic nervous system
Serotonin
Sleep, arousal levels, emotion

11. Affect of Serotonin on Behavior
Tokyo University (Kasamatsu and Hirai, 1999)
Aim: How sensory deprivation affects the brain
Buddhist monks deprived of food, water, no communication, and exposure to cold weather
48 hours, hallucinations
Blood samples before and right after hallucinations (serotonin levels increased which activated the frontal cortex and hypothalamus)
Conclusion: Sensory deprivation released serotonin which altered monks experience.

12. Drugs Stimulate the production of neurotransmitters
Block receptor sites if too much is produced

13. Technology and the Brain & Behavior
Technology gives researchers the ability to monitor and discover the “map” of the brain’s activity
Previously, case studies were used; usually situations that would be unethical to reproduce in the lab.
Case studies of brain damaged patients carried out over a long period of time (longitudinally)
Phineas Gage, Paul Broca, Carl Wernicke
Allows for observation of short-term and long-term effects

14. Localization of Brain Function
The idea that specific parts of the brain are responsible for specific functions
When a behavior is localized in the brain, it is possible to trace the origin of the behavior to a specific part of the brain.
Does not explain ALL human behavior but is a major step forward in brain research

15. Research on the role of the nucleus accumbens (pleasure center)
Robert Heath (1950s)
James Old (1950s)
Electrically stimulated parts o f the brain in depressed patients=experienced pleasure
One patient (B-19) electrically stimulated himself 1,500 times in 3 hours
Experienced euphoria and elation and was eventually disconnected against his will
Rats would receive electrical stimulation to the nucleus accumbens when a lever was pressed
Crossed over electrified grids and preferred pleasure lever over food and water

16. Brain Functions and Ethical Considerations
Electrical stimulation of the nucleus accumbens is based mainly on dopamine (desire) and serotonin (satiety and inhibition)
Via animal studies, all drugs increase the production of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and reduce serotonin.
Cocaine and nicotine
Frequent use of drugs increase the amount of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens.
Why drug addicts have an obsessive drive to seek more drugs even though they know its not good for them

17. Spiders on Drugs

18. Technology vs. Invasive Techniques
Study the active brain
EEG, PET, fMRI
More ethical
May be misleading
Ablation (removing) & leisoning (scarring) techniques on animals
Harm cannot be reversed
Ethical?
Pain?

19. Jig-Saw Activity Slides…

20. Biological LoA: Genetics & Behavior
Behavioral genetics: Understanding how both genetics and the environment play a role to individual variations in human behavior.
Rhesus macaque monkeys & humans
93% genes are shared, the 7% makes a large difference
Complexity of genetics:
Inheritance contributes to behavior and acts as a building block however, it is not probable that one specific gene is responsible for complex behaviors:
Intelligence, criminal behavior, attachment, altruism

21. Biological / genetic predisposition
= DISORDER
Stress
(environment)
Biological / genetic predisposition
The diathesis-stress model
The model looks at the genetic/biologic vulnerability to a disorder/disease and the stress or traumatic environmental stimuli that may trigger a disorder (such as depression)
The diathesis-stress model uses the analogy of a "walking time bomb" to help explain why, for example, not 100% of identical twins both get depression. It also helps to explain why a large percent of people in traumatic situations (post 9/11, rape, etc.) never develop PTSD.
The model further talks about a balance -- the greater the diathesis or predisposition, the less the stress required for the disorder to "appear" and visa versa. 

22. If you did, in your hours of free time, check these out on the wiki 
Last years notes on genetics and evolution… I hope you didn’t lose them!
If you did, in your hours of free time, check these out on the wiki 

23. Inheritance
Genes that are passed down from parents to their off-spring
Humans are composed of 24 pairs of chromosomes
20,000-25,000 genes
James Watson: Human Genome Project
Mapped human genes
Regardless of this amazing accomplishment, the role of specific genes are still unknown

24. Genetic Research Based off of correlation studies
Independent variable is not manipulated, so no cause and effect can be determined.
Three types:
Twin Studies
Family Studies
Adoption Studies

25. Twin Studies Dizygotic (DZ) Monozygotic (MZ)
Fraternal: Formed from two separate eggs
Share 50% of genes just like any other siblings
Same or different sex
Identical: one egg split in two
Share 100% of genes
Same sex
Used as basis for hypotheses since they show the different degrees of genetic relationship. In twin studies the correlation found is known as concordance.

26. Family Studies More representative of the general population
Different degree of relatedness is compared with behavior to determine the impact of genes.
Child
Mother (50%)
Grandparent (25%)
Father (50%)

27. Adoption Studies
Used to determine how great of an impact environment plays in behavior since the child does not share any genes with foster parents.
Often criticized because of selective placement
Agencies tend to find adoptive parents that are similar to their biological parents which cause a difficulty in determining separating genetic inheritance from environment influences. This process is known as selective placement.

28. Evolution
Another principle of the biological LoA is that the environment presents obstacles & challenges for each individual.
In essence, those that adapt have a better chance of survival & having offspring which allows their genes to be passed down.

29. Theory of Natural Selection
Members of a species acquire adaptive behaviors to survive the ever-changing environment (those better suited for environment will breed and pass on characteristics)
Adaption: Species develop characteristics that make it more competitive in its environment
Charles Darwin (Galapagos Island, finches, beaks)
On the Origin of Species (He didn’t yet know of the biological process through which traits are inherited)
Descent of Man

30. The Descent of Man findings
We humans share several behaviors with other animals
Mate selection
Love of mother for offspring
Self-preservation
Similar facial expressions as apes
Similar feelings as animals

31. Monkeys vs. Humans Tetsuro Matsuzawa (2007)
Looked at spatial memory in young chimps
Used 3 chimps that were taught to recognize the numbers 1-9 on a computer
Humans and chimps saw number flashed on a touch screen monitor and then the numbers were covered with blank squares and then were asked to touch the squares in sequential order.

32. Findings
Humans had more errors and less accuracy as numbers were flashed and replaced by squares quicker
As agriculture developed, spatial memory skills aren’t as important for finding food
Perhaps this skill was replaced by the ability to develop language
Chimps had astonishing memory; no difference in their recall in relation to the amount of time that the numbers were replaced with squares.
Adaption for survival skills such as remembering where food and danger is located in the rain forest

33. Ethical Considerations
Because research in human genetics looks to identify certain genes involved in hereditary diseases there can be some negative outcomes:
May pose risks to participates due to the link between genetic heritage and people’s life
Information obtained may cause stress to participants family
If misused, information can be stigmatizing which could lead the inability to get a job or health insurance.

34. Once again, notes last year over confidentiality should be revisited 
Aboriginal people may object to genetic studies
Eugenics and other forms of discrimination is the cause.
Consent and speaking to community leaders are a must for many aboriginal and ethnic groups.

35. Intelligence
During the beginning of the 20th century, governments and schools became very interested in one’s intellectual potential and the role genetics play in IQ
Alfred Binet developed an intelligence test to help understand this concept better within the French educational system
Research has shown that poverty plays a major role in the development of a child’s intelligence

36. The Bell Curve
Book published in 1994 by Harvard professor Richard J. Herrnstein
The debate about the role of genes and environment have to do with ethnic difference in intelligence is not yet resolved
Media discussed the idea that there may be intergroup differences in intelligence, thus conferring the idea that the root of intelligence in debatable

37. The “g” factor
Argued by Charles Spearman, there is a general intelligence factor that is the basis of all intelligence
Rather than looking a specific educational subjects (history, math, etc.) Spearman’s intelligence test measures the following:
Spatial ability
Reasoning
Divergent Thinking
Verbal Fluency

38. Meta-analysis in Relation to IQ Tests
Bouchard & McGue (1981) used 111 studies of IQ correlations between siblings from research around the world
Found that the closer the kinship the higher correlation of IQ
Meta-analysis: statistical synthesis of the data from a set of comparable studies of a problem that yields a quantitative summary of the pooled results

39. Minnesota Twin Study
(Bouchard et al.) Longitudinal study, been going on since 1979
Most cross-cultural study to date (participants from across the world)
Compares MZAs (identical twins raised apart) to MZTs (identical twins raised together)
Mean age of MZAs was 41 (start of study), until this study most research was done with adolescents
Twins completed 50 hours of testing and interviews

40. Same person tested twice
Findings
Same person tested twice
87%
Identical twins reared together
86%
Identical twins reared apart
76%
Fraternal twins reared together
55%
Biological siblings reared together
47%

41. Conclusions
70% of intelligence can be attributed to genetics inheritance, the other 30% is due to other factors
Much research has supported the MTS
The size and nature of the sample has made it one of the most impressive study ever conducted

42. Criticisms of the MTS Relied on media cover for participants
Ethical concerns about how twins were reunited
No adequate control to establish the frequency of contact between the twins prior to the study
“Equal environment assumption”
Cannot assume twins raised together experience the exact same environment (different friends, teachers, exposure to stimuli, etc.)

43. Adoption Studies for Intelligence
Scarr & Weinberg (1977) and Horn et al. (1979)
Researched parents that raised adopted and natural children
Any significant differences in IQ between the adoptive and biological children would be attributed to genes
No significant difference in IQ correlations were found
Parents were wealthy, white, middle class and high IQs & adopted children were poor, lower-class backgrounds, and lower IQs

44. Environmental Role on IQ
Wahlstein (1997) found that intelligence has a lot to do with environment and genetics
Found that transferring an infant from a low SES to a home where parents had a high SES improved childhood IQ scores points (about one standard deviation)
Enriched environment may raise IQ in children
Strong interaction between genes and the environment to produce intelligence level

45. Less Effort Hypothesis
Hainer et al. (1988) used PET scans to see how much energy was used in solving problems vs. data recall
Helped decipher what intelligence is (based on knowledge or ability to solve problems)
Those with higher IQs had lower metabolic rates when solving a reasoning problem in comparison to those with a low IQ
No difference in data recall
Those with a higher IQ use less energy to think than those with lower IQs

46. IQs Change over Time
Plomin & Petrill (1997) found that correlations between parent and child IQs change over time
Ages 4-6, 40% correlation
Early adulthood, 60% correlation
Older adults, 80% correlation
Our genetic disposition pushes us towards environments that accentuate that disposition, thus leading to increased heritability throughout life
SES seems to the most important environmental factors in IQ development

47. Flynn Effect
James R. Flynn noticed a rise in average scores on intelligence tests in most parts of the world over the last century
Ulric Neisser (1997) The America Scientist, average mean scores are going up about 3 points every decade (increase is even higher in abstract reasoning)
Better nutrition
Improved schooling
Different child-rearing practices
Increase in technology in modern life
Living a higher visual environment plays an important role in IQ scores
Does this prove a real increase in IQ or just better understanding of intelligence and tests?

48. Cognitive Level of Analysis
mental processes

49. Cognitive Psychology Cognition (cognoscere) “to know”
Ulric Neisser (1967)
“all the processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used.”
Includes the structure and function of the mind
How the human mind comes to know things about the world and how this knowledge is used
Cognitive neuroscience: Combines the knowledge about the brain and knowledge about cognitive processes.

50. Cognitive Processes Cognitive Processes:
Perception
Thinking
Problem-Solving
Memory
Language
Attention
Cognition is based on an individual’s mental representations of the world
Words
Images
Concepts
Different experiences influence our mental representations

51. Principles of Cognitive Psychology
1.) Mental processes guide behavior
Bottom-up Top-down Output (behavior)
2.) The mind can be studied scientifically
Developing theories and using scientific research methods
3.) Cognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural factors
Schemas

52. Mental processes guide behavior (Principle 1)
The mind is a complex “machine” using hardware (brain) and software (mental images or representations)
Information input via bottom-up processing (from the senses)
Information is processed in the mind via top-down processing (pre-stored information/memory)
Output (behavior)

53. Cognitive Theories and Models in the Real World
Subtle relationships between how people think about themselves and how they behave
A person’s mindset is important to predicting his/her behavior
People have fixed ideas about other people (stereotyping) which can lead to discrimination

54. Are memories infallible?
The reconstructive nature of memory
We do not store exact copies of experiences; we outline events which are filled out with information when it is recalled
The brain can fabricate illusions which seem so realistic we believe they are true
False Memory:
We cannot distinguish between what we have experienced and what we have heard about an event

55. Perception
Interpretation and organization of information from the senses to produce some meaningful experience of the world
Perception of an ambiguous object or event is influenced by:
Context
Frequency
How recent
What we think we objectively experience may in fact be a result of the brain’s interpretation of that object or event

56. The Mind Can Be Studied Scientifically (Principle 2)
New findings can adjust original theories/models or they can also be rejected if empirical evidence no longer supports it
Psychologists study cognition in laboratory settings as well as daily context
Previously, the experimental was assumed to be the most scientific method
In the 1960s, Ulric Neisser suggested that cognition cannot be isolated from our everyday experiences
Experimental tasks did not always resemble what people did in their daily lives

57. Studying the Mind Traditionally, controlled experiments were favored
Controlled variables
Experimental research might suffer from artificiality
Data is used to support/refute cognitive models
Today more methods are used:
Case studies
Incredible memory patients
Brain damaged patients (Localization functions)
Imaging technology
Which areas of the brain are active when making decisions, how cognitive processes can be disruptive by brain damage (amnesia or Alzheimer patients)

58. Interested in cultural schemas and how they impact remembering
Cognitive Processes are Influenced by Social & Cultural Factors (Principle 3)
Frederic Bartlett coined the term schema (mental representation of knowledge)
Interested in cultural schemas and how they impact remembering
Discovered that people have difficulties remembering a story from another culture and they adjusted the story to fit in with their own cultural schemas
Memory in not a tape recorder and we remember in terms of meaning and what makes sense to us, thus memory is subject to distortions

59. Mental Representations & Memory
How we store images and ideas in memory
We use mental representations to think, make plans, imagine, & daydream
Self-representation: How you perceive who you are and how you look
Mental representations are organized in categories which are stored in your memory
Manipulating mental representations allows us to think about situations & predict possible outcomes
Make plans, calculate risks, create

60. Schemas and Schema Theory
Schemas describe how specific knowledge is organized and stored in memory so it can be accessed and used when needed
Schema theory: Cognitive theory about information processing
Suggests that what we already know will influence the outcome of information processing because we humans are active processors of information
We interpret and integrate information to make sense of experiences even if we are unaware of it
When information is missing we fill in the blanks based on existing schemas or inventing information leading to mistakes (distortions)

61. Cognitive Schemas
Networks of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations about particular aspects of the world
Pre-stored mental representations
Allows us to have expectations of what will happen
Imagination allows us to picture characters in book book > movie
What we already know affects the way we interpret events and store knowledge in our memory

62. Points to Remember About Cognitive Schemas
Organize information about the world with fixed and variable slots; if slot is unspecified it is filled in by a “default value” (best guess)
Can be related to form systems
Active recognition devices (pattern recognition)
Help predict future events based on the past
Represent general knowledge rather than definitions

63. Schema Theory & Memory Processes
Schema processing can affect memory at all stages
Encoding: Transforming sensory information into meaningful memory
Storage: Creating a biological trace of the encoded information in memory, which can be consolidated or lost
Retrieval: Using stored information
Put into Memory
ENCODING
Maintain in Memory
STORAGE
Recover from Memory
RETRIEVAL

64. Evaluation of Schema Theory (Support)
Research supports the idea that schemas affect cognitive processes such as memory
Useful in understanding how people categorize information, interpret stories, & make inferences
Contributed to understanding of memory distortions as well as social cognition
Social psychologists use social schemas to help explain stereotyping and prejudice

65. Evaluation of Schema Theory (Limitations)
It is not entirely clear how schemas are acquired and how they actually influence cognitive processes
Cohen (1993) said that the concept of schemas is too vague to be useful yet researchers use it to explain cognitive processing
Daniel Gilbert argues that the brain is a “wonderful magician but a lousy scientist” by looking for meaningful patterns but does not check for accuracy

66. Multi-Store Model
Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) created the most influential information processing model thus far
Based off of two assumptions:
1.) Memory consists of a number of separate stores/types
The memory stores are seen as components that operate in conjunction with permanent memory through processes
2.) Memory processes are sequential; one must happen before another

67. Memory Storage Processes
Attention:
Pay attention to sensory input in order to remember it
Coding:
Give material a form that enables you to remember it
Rehearsal:
Keeping material active in memory via repetition until it can be stored

68. Steps of the Multi-store Model
1. Sensory memory: information from the world
Stays here only for seconds and only a small portion will transfer to STM
Modality specific: related to different senses (hearing & vision)
2. Short-term memory (STM) store:
7 item limit for a duration of 6-12 seconds
Quickly lost if not given attention
3. Rehearsal is necessary for long-term memory

69. Long-term Memory (LTM)
Storehouse of information
Since we do not know how much info can be stored, LTM is believed to have unlimited capacity and for an indefinite duration
Material is not exact (outline) and memory can be distorted due to schemas “filling in gaps”

70. Working Memory Model
Baddeley & Hitch (1974) based their model off of the multi-store model
Challenged the idea that STM is a single store
STM includes several components
Central executive
Episodic buffer
Phonological loop
Visuospatial sketchpad

71. Central Executive
Controlling system which monitors and coordinates the operations of the other components (slave systems)
Most important part of the working memory model
Limited capacity and is modality free (can process any sensory information)
Attentional control is the most important job of the central executive

72. Attentional Control Happens in two ways: 1.) Automatic level:
Based on habit and controlled automatically by stimuli in the environment
Includes routine procedures
2.) Supervisory level:
Deals with emergencies or creates new strategies when old ones are no longer sufficient
Reactions

73. Episodic Buffer Consciously trying to remember details
Acts as a temporary and passive display store until the information is needed (similar to a TV screen)
Processing of the information takes place in other parts of the system
Here’s your picture 

74. Phonological Loop Divided into 2 components
1.) Articulatory control system:
Inner voice which holds information in verbal form
Remembering a telephone number and repeating it
Holds words until you are ready to speak
2.) Phonological store:
Inner ear which holds speech-based material in phonological form
Memory only lasts seconds if it is not refreshed by the articulatory system
Receives info. directly from sensory memory in the form of auditory material and from LTM in the form of verbal information and the articulatory control system

75. Visuospatial Sketchpad
Inner eye
Deals with visual and spatial information from the sensory memory or LTM

76. Evidence of Working Memory
Most contemporary research accepts the idea of working memory
Experiments using dual-task techniques/interference tasks support the model
Participants were asked to carry out a cognitive task that used most of the capacity of their working memory
Telling a story to a person while also trying to learn a list of numbers
If the two tasks interfere with each other so that one or both are impaired, it is assumed that both tasks use the same component in the STM

77. Working Memory Model vs. Multi-store Model
More satisfactory explanation of storage and processing than the STM component of the multi-store model
Include active storage and processing which helps understand all sorts of cognitive tasks (reading comprehension and mental math)
Explains the idea of multi-tasking (performing different cognitive tasks at the same time without disruption)
Assumes that mental processes are passive

78. Working Memory in Children
Pickering & Gathercole (2001) used the Working Memory Test Battery for Children
Found that there is an improvement in performance in working memory capacity from the age of 5 until about 15
Working memory during childhood varies widely across individuals of the same age
Provides evidence that problems with working memory is associated with problems in academic performance
Problems with the phonological loop have been linked to math and reading abilities

79. Visual and Spatial Memory Linked to Math Skills
Holmes et al. (2008) studied the association between visuospatial sketchpad capacity and math attainment in relation to age
Samples: Ages 7-8 and 9-10
Studied age differences in relationship between visual and spatial memory and the range of math skills
Findings: Math performance could be predicted based off of the performance on the visual patterns test

80. SOCIOCULTURAL Level of Analysis

81. Principles of Sociocultural LoA
Since humans are social animals, we have the basic need to “belong”
Culture influences behavior
Since humans are social animals, we have a social self
Not only do we have an individual identity, but also a collective/social identity
People’s views of the world are resistant to change (ideological immunity)

82. Research: Sociocultural LoA
Goal: To see how people interact with each other
Usually it doesn’t make much sense to use experiments
Majority is in qualitative methods
Want to study the behavior of “participants” in realistic ways
Naturalistic, “as it really is”; in environments in which the behavior is likely to occur
Participant observation
Interviews
Focus groups

83. Thoughts Worth Mentioning About Research
In the past, laboratory experiments were used because they were considered the most scientific way of collecting data
Although modern techniques are more “real” they are descriptive data therefore they cannot explain cause-and-effect (causation) relationships
Participant observation is most common to “see the world through the eyes of the people being studied.”

84. Participant Observation
Covert
Overt
Researcher does not inform participants that they are being observed
Deceit is used to gain “trust” of members of the group
Intentions are not disclosed and behaviors are recorded without obtaining informed consent
Can’t take notes which causes researcher to rely on memory leading to distortion of data
Interviews can’t be used for fear of being discovered
Example: Leon Festinger et al’s When Prophecy Fails (1956)
Participants know they are being observed
Gain trust of the group being observed
Can use interviews to gather more information
Example: O’Reilly (2000)

85. Attribution Theory
Fritz Heider The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations (1958)
Attribution: How people interpret and explain casual relationships in the social world
We have a desire to understand why things happen
By observing behaviors we try to make inferences about intentions and responsibility
Actor-observer effect: Making attributions about behavior depending on whether they are performing it themselves or observing someone else doing it

86. Answering that “WHY” Question
Situational
Dispositional
Discussing own behavior
Blaming the situation
Analyzing the person’s action with regards to the situation he/she is in
Ex: Late work/missing assignments= genuine issue such as a family/personal issue
Observing someone else’s behavior
Blaming the person
A person’s behavior is influenced by internal characteristics
Ex: Late work/missing assignments= Lazy & irresponsible and never finishes work on time

87. Errors in Attributions
Fundamental Attribution Error
Self-serving Bias (SSB)
Overestimating the role of dispositional factors and underestimating the role of situational factors in an individual’s behavior
When people take credit for their success, attributing them to dispositional factors and dissociate themselves from their failures, attributing them to situational factors

88. A Deeper look into Fundamental Attribution Error
Reasons why this error is common:
Reason #1:
People tend to view themselves as adaptable, flexible, and ever-changing
We don’t like to view ourselves as that “type” of person but when we look at others we don’t have enough information about them to make a rash decision about them so we attribute their behavior to disposition (that’s just who they are)
Looking at our own behavior we believe we would have acted differently under different circumstances

89. Western Culture Influence
Reason #2:
Placing blame is part of Western culture
So is people being held accountable for their action
Evil actions are more acceptable when blamed on evil than to refer to environmental factors as explanations
The judicial system is looking for a satisfactory motive in order to convict someone of murder

90. Basics of Lee et al. (1977)
Aim: Will student participants make the fundamental attribution error even when they knew actors were playing a role
Roles: Host, contestant, audience
Findings: Role was not attributed to the person’s situation and attributed the person’s performance to dispositional factors (intelligence)
Concerns: Sample (student participants)
Professors seen as authorities
Not representative of greater population
Conclusion: People with social power usually initiate and control conversations; makes them seem knowledgeable and ideas are not challenged

91. Reasons why we use the self-serving bias:
#1: Serves as protection (Greenberg et al., 1982):
Attribute success to dispositional factors  boosts our self-esteem
Attribute failures to situational factors  protect our self-esteem
#2: Cognitive factors play a role (Miller & Ross, 1975):
Expect to succeed and do skills and ability
Expect to succeed and fail  bad luck/external factors
Expect to fail and do well  external factors/good luck
Expect to fail and we do  dispositional factors
Exception to the above rules: Severely depressed individuals make more dispositional attributions thus blaming themselves for feeling miserable

92. Cultural Differences in SSB
Modesty Bias: Explaining failures in terms of lacking ability
Kashima and Triandis (1986):
Show slides of scenes from unfamiliar countries
Americans attributed success to ability
Japanese attributed failures to their lack of ability
Chandler et al. (1990)
Also observed modesty bias in Japanese students
Watkins & Regmi (1990)
Same held true for Nepalese students
Bond, Leung, & Wan (1982)
Chinese students that showed modesty bias rather than SSB were more popular with peers
Kashima & Triandis argue this is due to collective societies which derive self-esteem from group identity as opposed to individual accomplishments

93. Social Identity Theory
Social Identity Theory (Henri Tajfel): Assumes that individuals strive to improve their self-image by trying to enhance their self-esteem, based on either personal identity or various social identities
Promotes self-esteem through achievement & affiliation with successful groups
Indicates the importance of social belonging
Based off of social categorization: Putting people into groups
In-group (us)
Out-group (them)
Causes prejudice, discrimination, stereotyping, ethnocentrism, in-group favoritism, and conformity to in-group norms

94. Studies for Social Identity Theory
Cianldini et al. (1976)
Football supporters supporting teams after victories
Tajfel (1978)
“establishment of positive distinctiveness”
Tajfel et al. (1971)
Kandusky vs. Klee

95. Limitations of the Social Identity Theory
#1: Describes but does not predict human behavior
#2 : Using it in isolation is reductionist which doesn’t allow for consideration of how the environment interacts with the “self”
Cultural expectations, rewards as motivators, and societal constraints (poverty) may play more of role in behavior that one’s own sense of in-group identity

96. Social Representations
Social representations (Moscovici, 1973): The share beliefs and explantions held by society in which we live or the group in which we belong
They are the foundation of social cognition which help us make sense of the world and master is; they also allow communication to take place among members of a community by providing social codes for social exchange and naming a classifying unambiguously the various aspects of their world and their individual and group history

97. Social Representations=Cultural Schemas
A group may have its own representation of success, beauty, or intelligence
Adler (1990) Meaning of “share”
Russian mother’s explanation of sharing  children playing together with a toy at the same time
American mother’s explanation of sharing  children taking turns to play with the same toy

98. Howarth (2002)
Social representations of Brixton and their impact they have on the identity of adolescents females
Those not living in Brixton had negative representation of Brixton
Those who lived there saw Brixton as “a diverse, creative, and vibrant” community
These ideas impacted the girls in their friend choice, sports teams, relations with police, and their employment opportunities
Illustrates the impact of social representations as the basis of stereotypes (negative and positive) and how they contribute to social identity

99. Stereotyping
Stereotype: A social perception of an individual in terms of group membership or physical attributes
Generalization of a group and then attributed to everyone in that group
A form of social categorization that affects the behavior of those that hold the stereotype, and those labeled by the stereotype
A result of schema processing
Can be negative of positive

100. Stereotype Threat

101. Spotlight Anxiety

102. Formation of Stereotypes
Social categorization
Gatekeepers
Illusory correlation
Confirmation bias
Social desirability effect

103. Social and Cultural Norms
Norm: Set of rules based on socially or culturally shared beliefs of how an individual ought to behave
Regulate behavior within the group
Deviants are punished, marginalized, stigmatized
Can be seen as a positive if creative and affective change takes place in society
Leads to conformity since we are social animals that need to belong

104. Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)
Assumes that humans learn behaviors through observational learning (learning by watching models and imitating their behavior)
Indirect (not intentionally trying to impact behavior) or direct models (teachers)

105. Factors of Learning Attention Retention Motor reproduction Motivation
Paying attention to model
Retention
Observer remembers behavior that was observed
Motor reproduction
Observer is able to replicate the behavior
Motivation
Observer wants to demonstrate behavior/what they learned

106. Factors of Motivation Consistency: Identification with the model:
Imitation is more likely if model has consistent behaviors
Identification with the model:
If models are similar to observer (age or gender) than replication of behaviors are more likely
Rewards/punishment
Vicarious reinforcement (we can learn from observing and we don’t have to experience consequences ourselves) takes place by watching people around us---in reality and movies; observational learning
Liking the model:
Warm and friendly models are more likely to be imitated as opposed to cold, uncaring models
Yarrow et al. (1970)

107. Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment (1961)
Explanation:
Video footage with Bandura’s explanation:
BBC video:

108. Social Learning Theory in Real Life
Does watching violence on television cause people to become violent?
Studies are consistent in proving that watching aggression shows children how to be aggressive in new ways and also draw conclusions about whether being aggressive to others will bring rewards or punishment
Huesmann & Eron (1986):
15 year longitudinal study found a positive correlation between the number of hours of violence watched on TV and the level of aggression demonstrated when being a teenager
8 year olds that watched TV violence were more likely to be arrested and prosecuted for criminal acts as adults

109. Not all Television is Bad!
Evidence supports shows like Sesame Street teaches positive behaviors and academic & social skills such as sharing, empathy, and academic curiosity
Soap operas/radio dramas use the Sabido method/social learning theory in order to effect change in society
We can learn from role models, especially people we can identify with
Unwanted teen pregnancies, reduce the spread of HIV, promote literacy, and empower women in developing countries
Researchers found exposure to Tanzania’s Twende na Wakati (Let’s Go with the Times) showed an increase in safe sex, women’s status, and family planning ( )

110. Evaluation of Social Learning Theory
Helps explain:
Why behaviors are passed down in a family or within cultures
Why children can acquire behaviors through trial-and-error learning
Criticism: Though a behavior is acquired it is not always demonstrated (behaviors may lie dormant)
Because of this, it is hard to say if the behavior is a 100% result of observing the model
The theory doesn’t explain why some people never develop the behavior even though they are exposed to it

111. Social Learning TheorySocial Cognitive Theory & Self-Efficacy Theory
Both are based on social learning theory but the focus is on beliefs and how they influence behavior
An important elaboration of social learning theory to explain why people are motivated not by the role models but also by their own beliefs and previous experiences

112. Social Influence: Compliance