1. Counseling 5670D Dr. Cyndi Matthews

2. Who was Vygotsky? Vygotsky was born in Western Russia. He later attended the University of Moscow, where he earned a degree in law. Although Vygtosky had no formal training in psychology, he began a career as a psychologist and his work focused primarily on education and children. In 1934, he died of tuberculosis. The government quashed most of his ideas and research, but his ideas were mainly kept alive by his students.

4. Key Principles to Consider https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0BX2ynEqLL4 – relate to counseling https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0BX2ynEqLL4 Vygotsky believed that learning precedes development. As Vygotsky said, "learning is a necessary and universal aspect of the process of developing culturally organized, specifically human psychological function" (1978, p. 90) The concept of social context is focal to Vygotsky’s theory. His theory revolved around social learning and interactions with others as a means of learning. Three essential elements: ontogeny (individual physical development; phylogeny (human evolution); social & cultural conditions (e.g. teen learning Shakespeare p. 85)

5. Psychological Cell Usually defined in human psychology as word meaning the smallest unit of conscious process Speech is important as the psychological cell because it is a tool which incorporates (1)Social/Cultural data, (2)Constitutes “Tool Use” which is an important part of human evolution, (3)Relies on physical development as it mediates the construction of conscious thought. Later expanded to include speech, desires, needs, interests, & emotions. This is significant because it identifies psychology as a study of volition, and motivational factors are seen as a key part of the psychological cell. (Douthit, 2008)

6. Philosophers and Their Effects on Human Development Thought Marx- “Human essence is no abstraction inherent in each individual. In its reality it is the ensemble of the social relations (Marx, 1845/1978b, p.145). Human development is best understood in the context of social interactions Hegel’s idea of dialectics Dialectics- the evolution of a society as new emergent ideas conflict with traditionally held ideas and views (disequilibrium) In the context of human development, dialectics refers to the process by which individuals attempt to adjust to aspects of their environment, while attempting to change other elements of environment. Engels The human adjustment to the use of tools, requires new power relationships among individuals Tools constitute human history, because they are the mediator between production and social transformation (Douthit, 2008)

7. What is the Zone of Proximal Development? “The distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problems solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86)

8. Zone of Proximal Development Scaffolding – building between what I can do and what I can’t do

9. What are the Implications of Zone of Proximal Development? The implication of teachers/mentors is important because it establishes more experienced members of the profession as an essential environmental element in cognitive development. The concept of pushing a person just beyond their ability is one which has utility not only in education, but also in counseling. The concept of understanding where the client is developmentally (Douthit, 2008)

10. What is Meta-Cognition? Definition: When the mind thinks about how it is thinking. The process begins when conflicting/new ideas are presented in the mind creating a conflict which must be resolved (cognitive dissonance/disequilibrium) When the conflict is resolved the mind is able to discern the difference in its thought processes.

11. What is the Teachers Role in Metacognition? The education process is not simply information transfer, but is a transactional learning process Scaffolding The process of making external consciousness available to the learner The teacher models the method of thinking about new ideas Learning occurs when the learner is able to assimilate the metacognitive process Sharing example p. 94 Kraus

12. The Role of Speech – “The Tool” What is Egocentric Speech? Definition: Child speaking to self without communicative function Serves as precursor to problem solving Evolves into Inner Speech which directs the process of thinking. (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010)

13. How does Private Speech Develop to Inner Speech? At 3 yo. Children develop a running commentary which is associated with directing thoughts and focusing. At 6 yo. Children’s private speech is subdued, perhaps only capturing general idea or being subvocalized. At 8 yo. Children’s egocentric speech “goes underground” and becomes inner speech, which serves a self-regulatory function. Inner speech becomes “The Tool” – the means of communicating, solving problems, understanding culture, framing issues, etc.

14. The Case of Russell p. 101 Who is Russell? Step 1: Current Concerns Step 2: Boost Metacognitive Insight (teaching identity development models) Step 3: Explore personal trajectory – state of disequilibrium Step 4: Resolution – counselor utilizing scaffolding

15. Who was Piaget? Constructivist Theory Knowledge is constructed by an individual Stimuli/Facts are learned and stored by the process of adaptation. Children/Adults are active participants in the learning process What is the “The American Question?” Speed up development Piaget’s thoughts? (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010)

16. What are Schemas? Categories of knowledge which help individuals to understand and interpret the world. They are based on the interactions and assimilation of experiences. May take the form of rules; (e.g. the only dogs I have seen are small and furry; thus all dogs are small and furry).

17. Adaptation The process by which children take in new information and develop schemas. Two Types: Assimilation and Accommodation

18. What is Assimilation?

19. Assimilation? The process of taking in new information into a previously existing schema. Over the course of the lifespan, schemas become more complex due to the stream of information. Example: A child at 3 knows trees are tall and have bark. An older individual has more knowledge about trees (i.e. tall, they grow larger over time, they have rings, they have leaves, etc….)

20. What is Accommodation?

21. Accommodation? Changing or altering schemas due to new information. Example: a child knows that dogs are furry and have four legs; A child sees a raccoon and calls it a dog. The child is corrected and must now adjust his schema about what dogs are, this is accommodation.

22. What is the significance? Knowledge is constructed Children instinctively are motivated to learn and make sense Learning is organized – develops in stages – although at different rates in different domains

23. Piaget’s Research What is the difficulty of research on infant cognitive development? lack of coherent and meaningful speech Early infant research focused on motor skill interactions with the environment and stimuli Piaget’s infant research was primarily conducted with his own children (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010).

24. Sensori-Motor Stage (0-2) Object Concepts Memory Intentionality

25. Object Concept Objects have properties that an stimulate all of their senses. Object Permanence - the sustained existence of objects out of sensory perception (occurs roughly at 8-12 mo) http://www.youtube.com/wa tch?v=BFUInSY2CeY Representational Thought: the ability to think about things not currently stimulating our senses https://www.youtube.com/w atch?v=NCdLNuP7OA8

26. What is Memory? Recognition vs. Recall? Recognition: Differentiation between new experiences and experiences that have occurred before. Infants 3 mo. and older can recognize a stimulus when it presented and then re-presented a month later. Recall: The ability to bring to mind an experience that happened in the past. Delayed-Imitation is a sign of developed recall; Can occur as early as 8 mo to sometime in the infant’s 2 nd year. This mental process is what makes modeling possible – mirror neurons? (same neurons fire when watching as doing) Separation Anxiety generally begins to occur at 8 mo., due to object permanence and increasing recall ability.

27. Intentions Early infants behaviors are largely instinctual/reflexive and not intentional If an infants actions produce an interesting event, it will often be repeated. This serves a precursor to intentionality (operant conditioning) Means-end Behavior-beginning of goal orient behavior. (e.g. removing barriers to reach a stimulus) (8-12 mo.)

28. Intentionality continued At 12-18 months infants begin utilizing a trial & error approach (toy behind screen) At 24 months problem solving becomes more sophisticated. Intentionality in communication is evident by 8-12 months (child – father – toy) More intention than we knew at 6 months old – reaching experiments

29. Pre-operational stage (2-6) Thinking – symbols Lack of conservation

30. What are Symbols? Symbols refer to representations that are stand-ins for an actual object (i.e. words used to ask for milk vs. actual milk; dressing up and pretending to be a firefighter vs. an actual firefighter). Symbolic Artifacts: symbols that physically represent what they stand for (e.g. a map or model – age 3) Symbolic Artifacts often present more problems for a child than more abstract symbols (i.e. words).

31. Characteristics of Pre-Operational Thought (2-7 ages) Conservation: Mental processes that “Conserve” the number or amount of something regardless of presentation Centration : pre-operational thought tends to be focused on one characteristic at a time. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GLj0IZFLKvg Egocentrism: the idea that others also share your perspective (both physically/literally and emotionally/figuratively). http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OinqFgsIbh0 Decentrism – taking into account multiple views

32. What are the Implications of Centrism, Egocentrism? P. 91 – what others know in recipes descriptions Miss deeper meaning Can only look at one factor

33. Concrete Operational (7-11) Development of clear, and logical thought when applied to the concrete world Logic: Children at this stage excel at inductive logic. (Inductive logic: single experience -> general principle) Children at this stage have difficulty with deductive logic (Deductive logic: general principle -> single experience) The principle of conservation is now attained. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YJyuy4B2aKU Reversibility one change reverses the effect of the other change.

34. Formal Operations (12+) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lw36PpYPPZM Capacity for ratio, algebraic functions, and purely abstract functions. Ability to form logic/hypothesis based on non- concrete information; hypothetico-deductive reasoning Possible to consider multiple hypothesis and outcomes

35. Language Development See Chart p. 95 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5FreXRAhTQs Phonology: the sound system of a language. Babbling begins at 6 mo. 9mo. Babbling is matched to native language. At 2 yo. Children can speak but have difficulty with voicing (d vs. t), (using vocal chords to emphasize/soften/harden phonic sounds) By 3 yo. Language is understandable By 4 yo. Child should be able to be understood, if not speech evaluation may be necessary. (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010)

36. Semantics Semantics-which words and word parts express specific meanings 18-24 mo. Children begin learning words very rapidly (vocabulary spurt) At age 5, approx 15,000 words are known (9-10 words per day) Children have difficult with the arbitrary nature of words and may object to different names.

37. Synatx Syntax-the linking of words into meaningful phrases/sentences. Learn and implement complex grammar P. 95 examples

38. Pragmatics Pragmatics- ability to craft a story that conveys a message and takes into account the listeners needs By 2-3 yo. Can craft a narrative but is largely uninformative. As perspective taking develops, so do narratives.

39. So the Questions are: What is the advantage of having a larger vocabulary? How much exposure to language is necessary? What particular language experiences facilitate learning?

40. Kegan’s Subject - Object Theory? Kegan – stage theory that extends Piagetian thinking Subject-those things that people identify with, are tied to, or embedded in (that control us) Object- those things that persons reflect on, are responsible for, relate to, or take control of. (Eriksen, 2008) For you – to watch later https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xUOapqI3rzs

41. StageDescription Stage 0 (Infancy to 2) Incorporative stage Subject to: reflexes Object: nothing Stage 1 (2-7 Years) Impulsive stage Subject to: impulses, perceptions Object: reflexes Stage 2 (8-11+ years) Imperial stage Subject to : needs, interests, desires Object: impulses, perceptions Stage 3 (after age 20) Interpersonal stage Subject to: interpersonal relationships and rules Object: needs, interests, desires Stage 4 (reached by 20-30% adults) Institutional stage Subject: institutions, career positions, systems which they operate Object: interpersonal relationships, mutuality, roles Stage 5 (not earlier than 40) Inter-individual stage Subject: none Object: authorship, identity, ideology, institutions, systems

42. Elements of Transformation Matching - acknowledging the dominant method of knowing (understanding the stage they are at – acknowledging it) Challenging - relating to them from the next potential level of knowing. (Vgotsky might say “scaffolding”)

43. Incorporative Balance 0-2 Infants view the environment as an extension of themselves (lack awareness of the “other” or “object”) Aware primarily of their own needs Matching: Holding, providing physical contact, providing safety, establishing eye contact. Challenging - through timely differentiation. Slowly begin to allow the child to meet their own needs and acknowledge independence. (Eriksen, 2008)

44. Impulsive Balance (2-7) Subject to impulsivity Active fantasy life Egocentrism in attributing impulses to family Matching: allow child to receive love and un-favored parents must be sympathetic of their connection with other parent. Challenging: Set limits to Facilitate boundaries between themselves & parents Create boundaries between the child and their impulses Establish Self-Regulation

45. Imperial Balance (8-11) Their impulses become object which allows greater degree of self-control Subject are their desires/needs/interest, which develop into self-concept. Beginning of developing peer groups Match: clearly defined expectations and consequences Challenge: attend to social norms and other’s feelings

46. Interpersonal Balance Have capacity for insight and action, perspective taking. Subject is the individuals relationship with others and social rules/mores Object is needs, thus a further sophistication of needs achievement Match: supporting their ability to be in relationship with others, express feeling, be intuitive Challenge: focus on individual needs and thoughts about a topic.

47. Institutional Balance Relationships and values are object – under their control (family values, structure of family, structure of relationships) Institutions are subject (embedded – religion/organizations) Matching: supporting individual ideas, reflectively deciding, setting boundaries, and being independent. Challenging: focusing the client on higher principles.

48. Inter-individual Balance. Moderation in polar thinking Process not Product is valued Ambiguity tolerated and preferred - Become less certain The “Ghandi Stage”

49. Value of Kegan Model? How do you see this model being used? Where could you see it being used? Case p. 144, situations p. 141 supervisee