1. Culture and Gender Part 2

2. Aggressiveness  Common gender-role stereotypes is that males more aggressive than females  Support for this stereotype in many cultures  In study of physical aggression between partners in 52 countries  In developed Western cultures, both sexes committed aggression  In individualistic, women empowered cultures, less female victimization  Social role theory

3. Aggressiveness  Many cultures did not show sex-related differences in teaching about aggression to children  Currently the mechanism accounting for gender differences in aggression unknown  Biology, culture, gender marking behavior

4. Gender Roles  Androgyny: gender identity involving endorsement of both male and female characteristics  African-American males and females are more androgynous than European males and females  Adolescent girls in US, Israel, and Hong Kong adopting androgynous identity have higher self acceptance than feminine or masculine girls; for boys, masculine identity have highest self acceptance

5. Gender Roles  Traditional gender roles for Asian Americans, Mexican Americans and Native Americans  Loosening of rigid gender roles for Asians and Mexican Americans  Concept of machismo and wider acceptable roles for Latina women  Gender role differentiation dependent on patriarchal or matriarchal nature of tribal culture of origin for Native Americans

6. Sex and Sexuality  Cultures differ on degree of importance placed on chastity for women and sexuality  Attitudes toward sex and sexuality related to cultural values of honor  Culture affects practice of male circumcision and female genital mutilation  Female genital mutilation is tied with honor and virtue in some cultures

7. Mate Selection, Mate Poaching, and Jealousy  Gender differences in preferences for mate and sexual jealousy are universal  Males more jealous of sexual infidelity  Females more jealous of emotional infidelity  Evolutionary model

8. Personality  Universally, woman reported higher scores on Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Warmth, and Openness to Feelings  Men scored higher on Assertiveness, and Openness to ideas  Differences between men and women largest in Europe and US

9. Ethnicity and Gender in the US  Most research is based on comparisons of African Americans with European Americans  Gender identities of African Americans are more androgynous (gender identity that involves male and female characteristics) than those of European Americans  Asian American families carry on traditional gender roles with women bearing the brunt of domestic duties.

10.  Mexican American roles are similar to Asian roles  The concept of Machismo - traditional expectation of the male gender role, such as being unemotional, strong, authoritative, aggressive, and masculine  Native Americans depend on the patriarchical or matriarchical nature of the tribal culture of origin.

11. Empirical Research Questions  What has been the effect of globalization and technology on attitudes about masculinity and domestic violence?  What are some cross- cultural views about choosing to stay single?  Are there cross-cultural differences regarding extra marital affairs by men and women?  Attitudes toward love across cultures: Do differences exist ?

12. Lee’s Six Stage Model of Love  1. Eros – passionate love  2. Ludus – game-playing love  3. Storge – friendship love  4. Pragma – practical love -a combination of ludus and storge

13. Lee’s Model (cont.)  5. Mania – possessive love  a combination of eros and ludus  6. Agape – altruistic love  a combination of eros and storge

14. Summary  Gender differences in psychological behaviors due to demands placed on culture by environment; therefore cultural differences exist in behaviors  Cultures are similar in stereotypes and attitudes concerning gender differences

15. CHANGING CULTURES, CHANGING GENDER ROLES

16.  Changes in culture bring about changes in gender roles  This has both positive (e.g., women more economically independent) and negative consequences (e.g., higher divorce rates and higher health problems for women)