1. AP PSYCHOLOGY: UNIT V Motivation, Emotion & Stress: Motivation

2. The Marshmallow Challenge Instructions:  Each group will receive a bag containing the materials that will be used for this challenge (spaghetti, tape, string, and one marshmallow) Goal:  Build the tallest freestanding structure, measured from the floor  The entire marshmallow must be on top of the structure  Use as much or as little of the items as you choose  You may break or cut the spaghetti, string, or tape as you choose You will have 18 minutes to complete this task

3. PART ONE: THE BASICS Motivation

4. Motivation: The Basics Motivation  A need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it towards a goal  Influences that account for the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of behavior Sources of Motivation Biological, Emotional, Cognitive, & Social Factors

5. Motivation: The Basics  Extrinsic Motivation  A desire to perform a behavior because of promised rewards or threats of punishment  Example Studying for a test To get an A or to avoid an F  Problem Behaviors maintained by extrinsic motivation will not be effectively sustained once the reward is removed

6. Motivation: The Basics Intrinsic Motivation  A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake because the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in some internal manner  Has an edge over extrinsic motivation in some areas, especially creativity  Tends to result in higher achievement  Examples?

7. PART TWO Motivation: Theories of Motivation

8. Theories: Instinct Theory A theory of motivation that asserts that human behavior is guided by innate biological instincts  Instinct  A fixed pattern that occurs without learning; rigidly patterned within a species  Examples  Imprinting, salmon spawning, rooting reflex  Basic human instincts?

9. Theories: Drive Reduction Theory Assumes behavior arises from physiological needs that cause internal tensions (drives) to push the organism towards satisfying the need, thus reducing tension & arousal  Primary Drives v. Secondary Drives  Physiological aim of drive reduction is homeostasis

10. Theories: Incentives Incentives (either positive or negative stimuli) pull us toward a goal  Behavior is guided by the lure of reward and/or the threat of punishment

11. Theories: Arousal Theory A theory of motivation in which people are said to have an optimal level of tension that they seek to maintain by increasing or decreasing stimulation  Goals  Increase arousal when it’s too low  Decrease arousal when it’s too high

12. Theories: Arousal Theory (Example) It’s Friday night & you’re sitting at a restaurant with 3 friends who are all taking the SAT in the morning...  Friend A: “You know, I don’t really care about the test. I’m going to a trade school and I’m only taking the test because my parents want me to. Can I have some of your fries?”  Friend B: “I want to do well, but if I screw up on this test, it’s not going to permanently ruin my life. I’ll give it my best shot. Where’s the ketchup?”  Friend C: “It’s all on the line tomorrow. If I don’t get a good score, it will change my life forever. I’m so nervous, I can’t eat…”

13. Theories: Yerkes-Dodson Law The theory that psychological arousal helps performance, but only to a certain point  The optimum level of arousal depends on the difficulty of the task  Each person has an optimum level of stimulation that they prefer to maintain Friend B would probably perform best on the test Too much or too little arousal can decrease performance Friend A has too low a level & Friend C is over stimulated

14. Theories: Maslow’s Hierarchy Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)  Humanistic psychologist who developed the hierarchy of needs, stating that some needs take priority over others  Begins at the base with physiological needs, and then proceeds through safety needs to psychological needs  Higher-level needs won’t become active until lower-level needs have been satisfied

16. Motivation: Hunger PART THREE Which of the following has a bigger impact on our hunger drive? Biological influences Psychological influences Socio-cultural influences

18. Motivation: Hunger Hunger DOES NOT come from our stomach It comes from our brain  Hypothalamus  Regulates appetite; serves as a weight “thermostat”  Damage to this area can cause weight gain due to lack of restraint in eating

19. Motivation: Hunger Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH)  Depresses hunger (upon stimulation)  If the VMH is destroyed, one will over-eat Lateral Hypothalamus (LH)  Brings on hunger (upon stimulation)  Triggers orexin (hormone) release – increasing hunger  If the LH is destroyed, one will under-eat

20. Motivation: Hunger HormoneTissue/LocationResponse Orexin increaseHypothalamusIncreases hunger Ghrelin increaseStomachIncreases hunger Insulin increasePancreasIncreases hunger Leptin increaseFat CellsDecreases hunger PYY increaseDigestive tractDecreases hunger The Hypothalamus & Hormones

22. Motivation: Hunger Weight Set Point  The point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)  The rate at which the body burns energy when the organism is resting When the body falls below the set point, increased hunger and a lower BMR may act to restore the lost weight…

23. Motivation: Hunger Set Point Theory explains why so many “successful” dieters regain the weight; they return to a set point

25. The Psychology of Hunger

26. Motivation: Hunger External Influences  Sight, sound and smell of food  Memory (of last meal…)  Due to difficulties with retention, amnesia patients eat frequently if given food Cultural/Environmental Influences  Taste preferences  Biology or culture? Sweet & salty are genetic & universal Others? Conditioned & in many cases adaptive

27. Motivation: Hunger Anorexia Nervosa  An eating disorder in which a person becomes significantly underweight (15%)  Self-starvation diets, extreme exercise regimens and delusions Bulimia Nervosa  An eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating (high-caloric foods), followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting or excessive exercise  Characterized by weight fluctuations Binge-Eating Disorder

29. PART FOUR Motivation: Sex

30. Obviously…  Sex is natural  Without sex, none of us would be here  “Sex is nature’s clever way of making people procreate, enabling our species to survive…”  So…  How do researchers study sex?

31. Motivation: Sex Alfred Kinsey (1940s)  Researcher/biologist at the University of Indiana  Institute for Sex Research  Published: Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948) Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953) Held confidential interviews with 18,000 people in the early 1940s  Pioneer in terms of sex research The Kinsey Scale (1-6)

32. Motivation: Sex 0- Exclusively heterosexual with no homosexual 1- Predominantly heterosexual, only incidentally homosexual 2- Predominantly heterosexual, but more than incidentally homosexual 3- Equally heterosexual and homosexual 4- Predominantly homosexual, but more than incidentally heterosexual 5- Predominantly homosexual, only incidentally heterosexual 6- Exclusively homosexual The Kinsey Scale

33. Motivation: Sex William Masters & Virginia Johnson (1960s) Set out to explore the physiology of sex  382 females and 312 males  After their research was complete they ran an institute that claimed to “turn” gay people straight  Described the sexual response cycle  Excitement  Plateau  Orgasm  Resolution

35. Motivation: Sex Hormones & Sexual Behavior  Sex hormones…  Impact the development of sexual characteristics  Activate sexual behavior More loosely in humans than in animals…  Impact of testosterone  In men?  In women? Hormone fluctuations are normal…

36. Motivation: Sex Sexual orientation refers to a person’s preference for emotional and sexual relationships with individuals of the same sex, the other sex and/or either sex  Statistics (National Health Interview Survey – 2013)  Gay or Lesbian – 3,729,000 (1.6%)  Bisexual – 1,514,000 (0.7%)  Straight – 224,163,000 (97.7%)

37. Biological Correlates of Sexual Orientation Gay-straight trait differences Male body-size; Sleep length; Age of onset puberty; Walking style; Occupational preferences; Spatial abilities Brain differences One hypothalamic cell cluster is smaller in women and gay men Gay men’s hypothalamus reacts as do straight women’s to smell of sex-related hormones Genetic Influences Shared sexual orientation is higher among identical twins than fraternal twins Male homosexuality often appears to be transmitted from the mother’s side of the family Prenatal Influences Altered prenatal hormone exposure may lead to homosexuality in humans and animals Right-handed men with several older biological brothers are more likely to be gay – maternal immune-system reaction