1. 1 Teaching Today: An Introduction to Education 8 th edition Part 2: Working with Students Chapter 6: What Is Taught and How Is It Taught? Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

2. 2 Curriculum and Instruction Foundations The answer to what is worth knowing and how this knowledge can be taught is influenced by the following factors: the role of the school in society philosophies of education how individuals learn traditions and history of education Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

3. 3 Focus Questions What factors define what is worth knowing? Does the school have a role in teaching values, developing character and ethics? Should knowledge focus on the values of our society or should a world-view be taught? How should teachers teach? Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

4. 4 Part I: The Curriculum Curriculum has come to mean a sequence of learning experiences, or the plan of study to be followed to reach educational goals (formal ). Curriculum is also defined as all experiences in the educational setting (informal). Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

5. 5 Part I: The Curriculum The Formal Curriculum refers to the explicit or planned curriculum; a series of planned events intended to have educational consequences. However, individuals do not learn information exactly as it is presented to them, giving rise to the term “inner curriculum.” Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

6. 6 Part I: The Curriculum Inner Curriculum – the brain tries to “make sense” out of what is taught in light of what it already knows and as a result individuals may experience the curriculum differently from others. This individual internalization as learners process new information is called the “inner curriculum.” Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

7. 7 Part I: The Curriculum Hidden Curriculum – The content, rules in the classroom, the organization of the class, and the information that is not taught send messages to students about what is important and appropriate. These messages that are sent during daily encounters have been termed “hidden curriculum.” Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

8. 8 Part I: The Curriculum Hidden curriculum, continued – What are some of the hidden messages you learned in school? Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

9. 9 Part I: The Curriculum Hidden Curriculum, continued – How can teachers guard against sending unwanted hidden messages? Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

10. 10 Part I: The Curriculum Curriculum orientation: “How do we decide what content is important?” Learner-centered orientation states that we teach to the needs and interests of students. Needs-of-the-society orientation identifies what is important by what society needs. Academic-subjects orientation emphasizes traditional school subjects. Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

11. 11 Part I: The Curriculum What Do You Think? – Which curriculum orientation is the one that seems to be closest to your views? Why? Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

12. 12 Part I: The Curriculum What Do You Think? – Can elements of the different orientations be combined? Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

13. 13 Part I: The Curriculum What Do You Think? – What do you see as the current curriculum emphasis? Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

14. 14 Part I: The Curriculum Contemporary Influences on Curriculum include: – Common Emphases – State Curriculum Standards – High-Stakes Testing Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

15. 15 Part II: Instruction The question of how important knowledge can be taught to the young is important to teachers because – Research indicates that teachers are the most significant variable that influences academic performance – Effective teaching requires expertise in instructional design and delivery (Good & Brophy, 2004). Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

16. 16 Part II: Instruction Teachers’ Dispositions The question of who can teach the young focuses on teachers’ dispositions, or perceptions and attitudes that shape behaviors. These perceptions are influenced by the values and attitudes of the individual, therefore teachers’ dispositions will influence how and when they utilize teaching skills. Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

17. 17 Part II: Instruction Teachers’ Dispositions (continued) If you view teaching as a “technical act” then teaching is merely learning the “right” response to predictable issues / problems. If you view teaching as a “complex interpersonal act” involving human desires and motivations, then teaching is applying professional judgment to unique situations. Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

18. 18 Part II: Instruction Teachers’ Dispositions (continued) Some important beliefs that influence teacher perceptions and behavior include: All students are worthy individuals Diversity strengthens education / society Students/teachers must be lifelong learners Learners feel competent and worthy All students are able to succeed Lessons should encourage learners to be active in creating their own knowledge Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

19. 19 Part II: Instruction Active Teaching Active teaching involves taking a direct role in leading the class; Active teaching is associated with enhanced learner achievement (Good & Brophy) Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

20. 20 Part II: Instruction Active Teaching (continued) Active teaching includes: organizing content motivating students presenting information monitoring and checking understanding assessing student learning Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

21. 21 Part II: Instruction Program Planning Program planning translates into fewer behavioral problems and a more successful lesson. Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

22. 22 Part II: Instruction Program Planning (continued) Program Planning responsibilities include: 1.Matching instruction to learners’ characteristics, 2.conducting task analyses to identify an appropriate beginning point and a logical sequence for instruction, 3.specifying learning intentions, 4.and matching programs to learner characteristics Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

23. 23 Part II: Instruction Task Analysis Task analysis involves identifying appropriate beginning points and logical sequences of instruction. Task analysis enables the teacher to determine what prerequisite knowledge and skill is needed to achieve success. Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

24. 24 Part II: Instruction Learning Intentions Learning intentions are sometime called lesson objectives. Learning intentions identify what learners should be able to do as a result of learning the content. Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

25. 25 Part II: Instruction Constructivism Constructivist teachers believe that learning is constructed by the brain as it seeks to relate new knowledge to prior knowledge. Many constructivist teachers use cooperative learning – small groups of learners working together to complete a given task. Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

26. 26 Part II: Instruction Constructivism (continued) Constructivism emphasizes concepts and ideas rather than small bits of information. Use mastery goals rather than performance goals. Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

27. 27 Part II: Instruction Teacher Clarity One of the most important dimensions of teacher clarity is the verbal and nonverbal teacher behavior. Nonverbal teacher behavior has several elements. The paralanguage influences what we hear and how we interpret it. Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

28. 28 Part II: Instruction Teacher Clarity (continued) Paralanguage communication is voice intonation, precision, articulation, and the rate of speaking. Where does paralanguage come from? What other non-verbal behaviors affect communication? Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

29. 29 Part II: Instruction Inquiry Lower-Level Questions – Questions that ask for recall of information – Multiple choice, matching, completion, true and false tests Higher-Level Questions – Questions that require more sophisticated thought processes such as application and analysis – Open-ended questions, essays, practical application of information, constructing, comparing/ contrasting tests questions Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

30. 30 Part II: Instruction Clarity of Questions involves avoiding questions that can be responded to in many ways. Wait Time is the interval between the question and the response. Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

31. 31 Part II: Instruction Homework and Learning What is the role of homework in learning? Can too much homework be detrimental to learning? How? How can you determine how much homework to assign? How can you gain support from parents for homework policies? Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

32. 32 Summary Curriculum refers to the selection and organization of content and learning experiences. It differs from Instruction, which deals with specific means of achieving the general plan described in a particular curriculum. Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

33. 33 Summary (continued) Standardized tests compare scores of students in a classroom with norms. State curriculum standards specify kinds of content required in elementary schools. Learner-centered curricula are based on the idea that learner interests and needs should drive the curriculum. Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

34. 34 Summary (continued) Needs-of-society curricula seek to produce learners capable of maintaining and extending broad social goals. Academic-subjects curricula organize programs into academic disciplines such as mathematics. Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

35. 35 Summary (continued) The Inner Curriculum is the learning that results when past experiences meld with classroom information. The Hidden Curriculum includes teachers’ behaviors and other aspects of the school setting that suggest what learners should be doing. Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

36. 36 Summary (continued) Teacher dispositions influence teacher effectiveness. Active teaching includes providing new information, monitoring progress, providing opportunities for practice, and re-teaching content to those who need additional help mastering material. Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

37. 37 Summary (continued) Constructivist teaching assumes that young people are driven to interpret information they encounter. Teacher clarity is associated with student achievement. Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

38. 38 Summary (continued) Sometimes homework affects learners’ level of achievement, sometimes it does not. Time sampling and event sampling are two methods used to determine what happens in the classroom. Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

39. 39 Reflections Teacher dispositions are important factors in determining the teachers’ effectiveness. Reflect upon your disposition. Which are you strong areas and which areas need improvement? What is your plan for improvement? Teaching Today, 8e Armstrong, Henson and Savage Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved