1. Please complete the entry activity with a partner
“A failure is not always a mistake, it may simply be the best one can do under the circumstances. The real mistake is to stop trying.” B. F. Skinner
Welcome to Week 6 of Functional Curriculum
Please complete the entry activity with a partner

2. Updates Article Review #3 is canceled
Instructional plan for functional skills due May 18th
Instructional plan for communication skills due May 25th
Instructional plan for academic skills due June 1st
Implementation plan (for one of your instructional plans) is due June 8th, we will have class that day. Please attend.

3. Quick Review What is self-determination?
What are specific skills students can be taught to promote self-determination?
What is the process for assessing students with moderate to severe disabilities?
What is this process called?
In designing instruction what are the general strategies (there are two)? Hint….Remember …. A,B,C.

4. Assessing Receptive Communication Skills
Receptive skills for a specific activity need to be identified
What does the student do to demonstrate that the message has been received and understood?
Document what forms of communication seem to be best understood

5. Assessing Expressive Communication Skills
Any attempt by the student to start, maintain, or end a communicative exchange should be noted.
How the students communicates (the form)—Skill level?
Why the student is communicating (function/intent)—different forms of communication for different purposes?
What the student talks about (content)—information on breadth of skills and accessibility?

6. Assessing current communication
Communication Matrix by Charity Rowland
(designs to learn website)
Organized by communication function
List of behaviors
Not used, emerging or mastered

8. Communication Ecological Inventory Worksheet (Figure 8-10, p
Communication Ecological Inventory Worksheet (Figure 8-10, p.249, Best, Heller, Bigge, 2005)
1. Ask: Where does the student spend time? (environment, sub-environment, activities)
2. Select Activity: (e.g., ordering food)
3. Observe: (for vocabulary used in activity)
List Expressive Vocabulary used in the activity
List Receptive Vocabulary used in the activity
4. Review listed words and determine which words & skills need to be taught to the student.

10. Adaptation Generalization Maintenance Fluency Acquisition
Stages of Learning
Adaptation
Generalization
Maintenance
Fluency
Acquisition: new task, need teacher assistance, performance may be clumsy and slow, teaching explicitly is crucial!
Think of new tasks for yourself?
Fluency: timely, few errors, achieved via practice of skills; some skills learned to fluency naturally, but teachers need to be explicit and plan!
Maintenance:
Acquisition

11. Examples Teaching reading in second grade
Objective: Hailey will read at 100 words correct per min with the Open Court text.
Acquisition:
Fluency:
Maintenance:
Generalization:

12. Example Decrease problem behavior
Objective: Mikai will not hit, kick or bite others on the playground.
Mikai will play cooperatively with others on the playground without hitting, kicking, or biting for 5 consecutive days.
Acquisition:
Fluency:
Maintenance:
Generalization:

13. Instructional Activities (acquisition)
Direct instruction
Systematic teaching of target skills: reading, math, social-behavioral skills
MODEL  LEAD TEST

14. direct instruction (“little di”): Steps
Gain attention … ”Everyone eyes on me.”
Review previous material to:
Check for understanding to ensure students remember
How previous material is relevant to new material
State goal
State Expectations Positively
New content in small steps
Explicit Instruction, range of examples, logical sequence)
Model
Demonstration of the skill
Lead
Prompted (guided) practice
Unprompted practice
Test
Independent practice

15. Instructional Concepts
State expectations positively
Explicit instruction
Range of examples
Logical sequencing

16. Instructional Concept #1
State Expectations Positively
Teach them what you do want them to do

17. Ineffective Instruction
Sets the occasion for student failure

18. Teaching Behaviors Behavior: Peer Relations Academic Skill: Addition
No elbowing others
No kicking
No hitting
No pinching
No biting
No scratching
Etc. . .
2+2 is not 1
2+2 is not 2
2+2 is not 3
2+2 is not 5
2+2 is not 6
2+2 is not 7
Etc. . .

19. Teaching Behaviors Behavior: Peer Relations Academic Skill: Addition
Hands and feet to self or
Respect others
2+2 = 4

20. Instructional Concept #2
Explicit Instruction
Be Direct

21. What is the Best Way to Facilitate Academic Success?
Should we teach, facilitate, or just support?
Teaching - teacher structures a lesson, models skills, and leads students through practice or key skills.
Facilitate - teachers sets up activities wherein students discover key skills.
Support - teachers simply oversee students and offer support for whatever they do.

22. Large-Scale Research and Meta Analyses
Explicit Instruction
Large-Scale Research and Meta Analyses
Direct Comparison Meta-Analysis Favor explicit instruction % Tie % Favor other methods %
Students of all ages and abilities
Academic and social behaviors
Especially effective with low performers
Very successful with disadvantaged students

23. Instructional Concept #3
Range of Examples
Show all the possibilities

24. Effective Instruction
Effective instruction is:
Effective example selection and sequencing
Task analysis
Facilitate success
Delivered at the level of the student

25. INEFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION
INEFFECTIVE MODELS
INEFFECTIVE PRACTICE -
TESTING OUTCOMES
Walk on green
Don’t walk
on red
Walk on green
Don’t walk
on red
FAILURE
= ?
Green light =
Walk
YES
NO LIGHT = ?

26. Instructional Concept #4
Logical Sequencing
Juxtapose positive and negative examples

27. INEFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION
INEFFECTIVE MODELS
INEFFECTIVE PRACTICE -
TESTING OUTCOMES
= osh
= osh
= osh
= osh
= osh
FAILURE
Osh = ?

28. EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION
EFFECTIVE MODELS
EFFECTIVE PRACTICE -
TESTING OUTCOMES
= osh
= osh
= osh
= not osh
= osh
= osh
= not osh
SUCCESS
Osh =
RED SIDED RECTANGLE

29. Instructional Sequence
Presentation - tell and model
Recitation - student Q & A
Individual Work - with teacher feedback -make sure students get it
Group work
-activities, experiments, etc.
-chance to discover application to real world
Test - Make sure they have skill fluency

30. Instructional Sequence
Model: Structured, Clear
Be direct with multiple examples & non-examples
Lead: High levels of opportunities to respond (OTR), success
Individual Work - with clear teacher feedback -make sure students get it
Group work
-activities, experiments, etc.
-chance to discover application to real world
Test - Make sure they have skill fluency

31. Instructional Methods
Students with intellectual disabilities learn best when instructional methods are explicit, systematic, and derived from empirical research such as the following practices (Heward, 2003)

32. Heward, 2003
Assess each student’s present levels of performance to help identify and prioritize most important instructional targets.
Define and task-analyze the new knowledge or skills to be learned
Design instructional methods and activities so the student has frequent opportunities for active student response in the form of guided and independent practice
Use mediated scaffolding (provide and then fade prompts so student can respond to natural occurring stimuli)

33. Heward, 2003 continued
Provide systematic consequences for student performance in the form of contingent reinforcement, instructional feedback, and error correction.
Incorporate fluency-building activities into lessons
Incorporate strategies for promoting generalization and maintenance of newly learned skills
Conduct direct and frequent measurements of student performance, and use those data to instructional decisions.

34. Specialized Teaching Strategies
Visual modality strategies
Visual supports, visual schedules, activity boards, rule scripts, video modeling,
Task analysis & chaining
Forward, backward, interrupted
Discrete teaching trials
Prompting systems, time-delay,
Antecedent & Consequence strategies

35. Increase success in conducting task analyses
Select a needed skill by using ecological inventory results (remember activity analysis/ADAPT) to identify a functional and age-appropriate skill that is an important target for a particular student.
Define the target skill simply, including a description of the settings and materials most suited to the natural performance of the task.
Perform the task and observe peers performing the task, using the chosen materials in the natural setting.

36. Increasing success cont’d…
Adapt the steps to suit the student’s abilities; employ as needed the principle of partial participation
Validate the task analysis by having the student perform the task, but provide assistance on steps that are unknown so that performance of all of the steps can be viewed.
Revise the task analysis so that it works; explore adding simple, nonstigmatizing adaptations to steps that appear to be unreasonable in an unadapted form

37. Writing the Task Analysis on the data collection form
State steps in observable terms.
Steps are ordered in logical sequence.
Written in second-person singular (“You”) so that they could serve as verbal prompts.
Use language that is not confusing to the student, with the performance details that are essential to assessing performance enclosed in parentheses e.g., Walk down the hallway (thru lobby to the left).

39. Specialized Teaching Strategies
Task analysis & chaining
Total task, forward, backward
Antecedent Strategies
Visual modality strategies
Visual supports, visual schedules, activity boards, rule scripts, video modeling,
Time-delay,
Prompting systems
Consequence strategies
Differential reinforcement & error correction
Discrete Teaching Trials
Pivotal Response Training

40. Chaining for multiple-step behaviors, Total Task
Total Task Training:
Instruction begins by starting with the first step in the chain and teaching each successive step in order until the chain of responses is completed.
Successful with all sorts of chained tasks
Works best if the chain is not too long (chained tasks can be subdivided or a single training trial can be too lengthy).
Main advantage: all teaching opportunities are used (each step is taught each time) and the task is completed.
May produce faster learning than other chaining methods.
More natural approach than the other options

41. Forward Chaining
Begin instruction by starting with the student performing any learned steps in order up to the first unmastered response, at which point instruction occurs.
Remainder of chain completed by teacher or by student with assistance
Useful with many self-care routines and chained academic tasks (e.g., use of number line, telephone dialing, calculator use, etc.)
May be stigmatizing when assistance with unlearned part of the task is obvious…so think of how to do this and respect student’s dignity

42. Backward Chaining Backward
Instruction begins by helping the student perform the entire chain up until the last step of the chain, at which point instruction occurs.
Useful with many self-care routines
Advantage over forward chaining: student is being assisted through the task, completes the task quickly, and gets reinforcement early in learning.
May also be stigmatizing, respect student’s dignity
With all of these chaining strategies reinforcement is given quickly (e.g., praise) after each response and again at the end of the chain (e.g., a short break)

43. Chained response skills vs discrete response skills
Chained: multi-step behaviors
E.g. sweeping the floor, playing UNO, ordering food
Discrete: stand alone (e.g., naming people, matching numbers to quantities, reading words)
It is sometimes hard to distinguish the difference, depending on the learner

44. Decide whether these objectives include chained or discrete behaviors
Following the use of the toilet, Marc will wash his hands by completing 8 of 10 task steps independently
When asked to circle a word (e.g., nap, mop, map) that matches a picture on a worksheet, Marc will correctly circle the word 75% of the worksheet for two probes in a row
When given a slant board to hold his papers and a template to limit the range of writing, Marc will print all of the letters of the alphabet from a model 100% of the time on two probes in a row.
During lunch time at school, Marc will complete 10 of the 12 steps independently: get in line, go to cafeteria….etc….and return to the classroom.

45. Antecedent Strategies
Time Delay
Constant (CTD; Miracle et al., 2001)
Progressive (Wolery et al., 1992)
Prompting Systems
Gestural, verbal, pre-recorded auditory prompts, pictorial prompts, model prompts, physical prompts, mixed prompts
System of Least Prompts (or least-to-most prompting
Most-to-Least Prompts

46. Constant Time Delay (CTD)
Commonly used to teach single, discrete behaviors such as sight words and naming objects :
Attention Cue: “Get Ready”
Task Direction: target stimulus + “read this”
Delay period: Pause 4 to 5 seconds
Effective Prompt: verbal, gestural, etc.
Prompt must have worked in the past/ know that prompt works
Ex: Teacher reading the sign followed by student imitating teacher’s words
First several trials use zero-second delay period to provide initial instruction
Ex: “Read the sign” & immediately say “walk”
After initial trials, insert delay period

47. Progressive Time Delay
Similar to CTD, but more effective for students with severe disabilities
Difference is: gradually increases the time delay period between the direction and the prompt
Go from zero-second to 1-s (for several trails), then 2-s (for several trials, then 3-s, etc….
Because delay period is gradually increased, more likely that the student will not be lost between direction and prompt

48. System of Least Prompts
AKA: least-to-most prompting OR least intrusive prompting OR increasing assistance
Uses a brief waiting period
Then, present hierarchy of increasingly intrusive prompts (minimal prompt to maximum prompt)
e.g., gestural, verbal, partial physical, full physical
Provide a prompt on each trial with only the minimum intensity necessary to get the behavior to occur
Most commonly used for teaching chained tasks (Doyle et al., 1988)

49. Example: Teaching how to make coffee
Work with a partner and do the following:
1. Task analysis of steps to complete
2. Determine a least-to-most hierarchy of prompts
Example:
No prompt (time delay for 5 seconds)
Indirect verbal prompt (“what’s next?”)
Direct verbal prompt (“Do ____”)
Partial physical prompt (nudge hand)
Fully physical assistance (fully guide hand)

50. Most-to-Least Prompts
Opposite of the system of least prompts
AKA: Decreasing assistance procedure
Simultaneously providing target stimulus AND most intrusive prompt on the first set of trials
Eliminates most errors that tend to occur in early learning trials.
Commonly used with individuals with very severe/profound disabilities—start with full physical with verbal direction

51. Visual Modality Strategies
Visual Supports
-Use of visual symbols & objects
Visual Schedules
Activity Boards
Rule Scripts/ Social Stories
Video Modeling

53. Checklist for individualization of visual schedules
Determine Form of Representation
Object that will be used in activity
Object that is symbolic of activity/area
Photograph
Icon
Picture/word combination
Single word
Phrases or sentences
For more information go to

54. Determine Length of Visual Schedule
One item at a time, signifying transition
Two items, signifying first—then sequence
Three or four items, up to an hour
2 hours
Half day
Full day

55. Determine presentation format
One item at a time
Left to right sequence
Top to bottom sequence
Multiple rows

56. Determine ways to manipulate the schedule
Carry object to be used
Carry visual cue to be matched (in basket, box, pocket, on VELCRO)
Turn over visual cue on schedule as completed
Mark off visual cue on schedule as completed

57. Determine location of schedule
Teacher takes schedule information to student
Stationary schedule in central location on table
Stationary schedule in central location on shelf or wall
Portable schedule: “pull-off” segment of schedule
Portable schedule: on clipboard
Portable schedule: in notebook

58. Determine initiation of the use of the schedule
Teacher takes schedule information to student
Student goes to schedule with transition symbol:
From same room, schedule within view
From a variety of locations
Student travels to schedule using verbal cue
Student spontaneously checks schedule

59. TEACCH
Treatment and Education of Autistic and Communication related handicapped CHildren -
-Established in the early 1970s by Eric Schopler
-Structured Teaching Model
-Physical organization, scheduling, visual (picture and color) approach, use of reinforcement strategies

60. Consequence Strategies
Differential reinforcement
Reinforcing correct (desired) responses, while withholding reinforcement for incorrect (non-desired) responses.
Determine reinforcers through preference assessments to ensure effectiveness
Always pair with natural consequence (e.g., if completion of task results in praise, pair external reinforcer with verbal praise)
Schedules of reinforcement
Frequency and pattern behaviors are reinforced
Ratio (according to # of responses) or interval (passage of time in relation to performance) schedules

61. Fixed vs Variable Schedules
Fixed: absolute predetermined number
Ratio (Fixed ratio; every 10 correct responses)
Intervals (Fixed intervals; every 10 seconds)
Variable: changing, non-fixed number of reinforcements, but offer reinforcement on a schedule that is an average of the reinforcement pattern selected.
Variable ratio: (VR:5=average of every fifth response; e.g., after 3, 7, 2, 8 [total 20..avg 5]
Variable interval: (VI:5=average of every five minutes; same example above)

62. “Rules to scheduling reinforcement when planning instruction (from Snell & Brown, 2011”
1. During acquisition stage of learning more instances of behavior should be encouraged by the continuous provision of small amounts of contingent reiforcement (e.g., a smile and task-specific praise, fulfilling a request, “high five”, or “Yes!”) instead of large amounts of reinforcement given less often.

63. Rule #2
2. After a higher rate or more accurate behavior has been established, reinforcers should be faded slowly from a continuous to a fixed schedule, which requires more behavior for each reinforcement. This will strengthen the behavior as the student learns to tolerate periods of nonreinforcement instead of abruptly giving up & not responding when reinforcment is not forthcoming

64. Rule #3
Because students may learn to predict when reinforcement will occur, uneven patterns may result (e.g., rewarded for cleaning every Friday…won’t clean until Friday…vs random spot checks), so switch to a variable schedule
based on average of every fifth time, but may occur after 2nd behavior or 10th behavior…student doesn’t know so continues working hard!

65. Rule #4
Reinforcers must be assessed periodically so that they continue to be reinforcing to the student.
Wise to offer students the opportunity to choose their reinforcer from a group of preferred activities/items.

66. Rule #5
Reinforcers must be suited to student’s chronological age, the activity, and the learning situation.
Aim for replacing less appropriate reinforcers with ones that have more availability in the natural environments encountered by the student.

67. Rule #6
The more immediately a reinforcer is presented following the peformance of the behavior, the greater will be its effect.

68. Error Correction
Errors include: incorrect responses, problem behavior, and nonresponses
Missed steps in a chained response
Discrimination errors in a discrete behavior (e.g., signing “eat” instead of “help”)
Taking longer than the expected response latency
Want to determine if it is an error due to “can’t do or won’t do”
If can’t do…need to re-teach or use different prompting system (think antecedents).
If won’t do…need to look at motivation/function & reinforcement schedule

69. Strategies for handling incorrect responses
During acquisition:
Gently interrupt errors with a prompt
After an error provide feedback (pause, hold up index finger, say “not quite”) and give another immediate opportunity to perform while increasing the assistance (as in a system of least prompts).
Gently stop an error and see if a student will self-correct. Direct the student to the relevant task stimuli, add prompts as needed.
Reinforce any self-corrections

70. Correction strategies later in learning
Wait for student to self-correct
If this does not occur, give assistance to correct the error.
Simplify those responses that are frequently missed or performed incorrectly
Gently interrupt errors and provide several immediate opportunities to practice the missed response (or steps in chained task) that are frequently missed.

71. Instructional Plan Assignments (10 points each/ 30pts total)
Directions:
1. Based on the task analysis for the focused routine/skill complete an instructional plan for each routine/skill (i.e., functional skill, academic skill, communication skill)
2. Modify your task analysis recording form to indicate the teaching schedule, materials, and prompting procedures, etc. to be used. Please submit your modified task analysis form with this assignment.
3. Complete the instructional plan for your student using the format provided.

72. Implementation Plan Assignment
Directions:
1. Select one of your completed instructional plans and implement the plan with the student for at least 3 sessions.
2. Record data completely on the task analysis recording form. Make sure to include anecdotal information using the back of the task analysis recording form. Please submit your completed task analysis form with this assignment.
3. Complete the implementation plan for your student using the format provided.
4. Please include your previously submitted instructional plan that was used to guide the implementation, as some changes may have occurred in that plan before implementation.