1. The Invisible City The Rise of the Technologically Networked City – Emerged in 19 th Century, Blossomed in 20 th Century. Pipes, Tracks and Wires Made Possible by Industrialism – New Materials and Techniques

4. Fever, Fever: Or How the 19 th Century City was Made Livable Cholera Typhoid Yellow Fever

10. Typhoid Death Rates (per 100,000) 1880-1922 City188018851890189519001922 Baltimore 59425936354.1 Boston 42403533261.4 Chicago 34759238201.1 Cincinnati 70426939 3.2 Cleveland 44345035 54 Milwaukee 37283326173.1 New Orleans 241724444010.3 New York 25272317212.3 Philadelphia 5864 40352.8 Pittsburgh 13576132781445.4 San Francisco 3444 34132.2 St. Louis 4031 21293.3 Washington 546511286785.0

11. It was More than Simply Water Distribution Systems and Sewers that Resulted in the late 19 th Century Drop in Mortality Rates: 3 Strategies The securing of a municipal water supply from a distant and protected watershed The introduction of of sewage treatment, usually using combined physical / chemical / microbiological processes The filtration of water at the intake and then chlorination before distribution

12. The Miasma Theory of Disease Miasma is considered to be a poisonous vapor or mist that is filled with particles from decomposed matter (miasmata) that could cause illnesses and is identifiable by its nasty, foul smell (which, of course, came from the decomposed material). The theory of miasma made sense to 19 th c. English sanitary reformers. Miasma explained why cholera and other diseases were epidemic in places where the water was left standing and very foul-smelling.

14. London Population Statistics YearPopulation 1700700,000 1801958,863 18211,378,947 18411,948,417 18612,803,989 18813,815,544 (4,776,661) 18914,211,056 (5,633,332)

17. Report...from the Poor Law Commissioners on an Inquiry into the Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Population of Great London, 1842, pp. 369-372.] That such disease, wherever its attacks are frequent, is always found in connexion with the physical circumstances above specified, and that where those circumstances are removed by drainage, proper cleansing, better ventilation, and other means of diminishing atmospheric impurity, the frequency and intensity of such disease is abated; and where the removal of the noxious agencies appears to be complete, such disease almost entirely disappears. That the formation of all habits of cleanliness is obstructed by defective supplies of water. That the annual loss of life from filth and bad ventilation are greater than the loss from death or wounds in any wars in which the country has been engaged in modern times. That defective town cleansing fosters habits of the most abject degradation and tends to the demoralization of large numbers of human beings, who subsist by means of what they find amidst the noxious filth accumulated in neglected streets and bye- places.

18. Miasmic Theory Disproved Dr. John Snow, Soho, and London in 1854 Evidence was not consistent with the observations of microbiology

22. “The Big Stink” – 1858 Part of the problem was due to the introduction of modern flush toilets London had some 200,000 cesspits that overflowed into street drains emptying into the River Thames Joseph Bazalgette – [this sewage] kept oscillating up and down the river, while more filth was continually added to it, until the Thames became absolutely pestilential.”

28. Water, Sewers, and the American Scene Benajmin Latrobe and The Fairmont Waterworks in Philadelphia In 1822 Fairmont replaces water-driven pumps with steam pumps By 1880, Fairmont water was polluted because of acidic runoff from anthracite fields; supply limited because of upstream irrigation Closed in 1909

31. Percentage of American Cities with Waterworks YearNumberCities (2500+) % Cities 1830459050 18406513150 18508423636 186013739235 187024466337 188059993964

32. Public and Private Ownership of Waterworks YearTotal WWPublicPrivate 183045936 (80%) 1840652342 (65%) 1850843351 (61%) 18601375780 (59%) 1870244116128 (53%) 1880599293306 (51%)

33. The Rise of Sanitary Engineering William Sedgwick, MIT Lawrence Experiment Station, MA George C. Whipple, The Microscopy of Drinking Water (1899) Allen Hazen, Pure Water and How to Get It (1906)

35. Decline in Typhoid Rates After Use of Hypochlorite CityBefore (1900-10) After (1908-13) % Change Baltimore35.222.835 Cleveland35.510.072 Des Moines22.713.441 Erie38.713.565 Evanston26.014.544 Jersey City18.79.350 Kansas City42.520.053 Omaha22.511.847 Poughkeepsie54.018.566

37. Water Purification -- New Orleans 200 mgd, intake on the Mississippi River – complexities include changing river level, water temperature, pollutants, turbidity Water floridation at the intake Poly-electrolyte added to promote flocculation Pumped to reservoirs for holding, pH adjustment, flocculation Preliminary chlorination Sand filtration/ carbon filtration Secondary chlorination, residual of 1 ppm chlorine in system Haloform reaction, organics, bladder cancer rates Water from Pearl River? Ozone?