1. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.1 Chapter 15 Qualitative Methods Researcher using qualitative methods needs theoretical and social sensitivity Balance what is being observed with what is known Recognize subjective role of the researcher Think abstractly and make connections among data collected

2. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.2 Field Interviewing Method for discovering how people Think and feel about their communication practices Order and assess their world Semidirected conversation Goal is to uncover participant's point of view More than just asking questions to get answers Interviews can be formal, informal, or both

3. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.3 The Interview Process Conceptualize the interview study Review the topical and interview literature Develop the purpose of your study Develop research questions to guide your study Design the interview Decide how to find and select respondents Determine how many respondents are needed Generally enough when interviews are producing the same data

4. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.4 The Interview Process Conduct the interview Select locations and times comfortable and accessible for respondents Best done in pairs One to interview One to take notes Establish context and frame for interview Define situation, explain purpose, ask about taping the interview, ask if participant has any questions

5. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.5 The Interview Process Ask questions Carefully construct questions to get the information you need or to prompt discussion Prepare and use an interview guide Ask relevant biographical questions to contextualize information Some questions should allow respondent to tell his or her own story Open questions are better than closed questions

6. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.6 The Interview Process Conclude the interview Debrief the participant Summarize main points and new information Provide any information that was withheld from participant before interview Ask if participant has any questions Thank the participant Transcribe the interview

7. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.7 The Interview Process Analyze the interview transcript With research questions in mind, reach each transcript thoroughly and completely Make tentative margin notes Choose process of analyzing transcripts individually and as a whole Verify and report interview findings

8. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.8 Techniques for Analyzing Interview Data Method 1 1.Search each transcript for themes 2.Select helpful quotes 3.Determine relative significance of themes 4.Search for oppositions and hierarchies 5.Compare transcripts Method 2 1.Identify participant descriptions 2.Identify when participant discovers new insights 3.Look at summaries given as feedback 4.Interpret the entirety of the interview 5.Feedback interpretations to participants

9. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.9 Strengths and Limitations of Interview Research Strengths 1.Face-to-face setting allows you to probe and follow up 2.Can collect data on behavior/events you cannot observe Limitations 1.Interviews produce an enormous amount of data 2.Participant can stray off course 3.Participant may be hesitant to talk

10. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.10 Focus Groups Facilitator-led group discussion Usually 5 to 10 participants 60 to 90 minute group discussion Respondents encouraged to interact with one another Not a decision-making group Distinguish research focus group from marketing focus group

11. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.11 Selecting Participants Based upon research question Select strangers who possess similar characteristics Use screening questions to qualify participation Motivate those selected to participate Overrecruit by 20%

12. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.12 Conducting Focus Group Research Researcher decides level of structure and how conversation will be encouraged 90 minutes Introduce participants Serve refreshments Conduct discussion Summarize what was said as feedback to participants

13. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.13 Focus Group Moderator May not be the researcher Someone with whom participants can identify Someone who is perceived as credible Have the communication skills to gently guide a group’s discussion Not an interviewer Not a participant

14. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.14 Focus Group Outline Standardized list of questions or topic to cover in each focus group Usually a funnel from general to more specific Opening questions should be broad To encourage free discussion Allow each participant to respond Allow moderator to identify other issues

15. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.15 Analyzing Focus Group Discussions Discussions are audiotaped and transcribed Moderator should make field notes immediately following each session Analysis of discussion data and moderator notes Stem from literature Answer research questions

16. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.16 Focus Group Strengths and Limitations Strengths 1.Provides views and opinions in participants’ own words 2.Allows consensus or conflict to emerge among participants 3.Can generate information about same topic from different people Limitations 1.Talkative or overly opinionated participants 2.Hesitant to express opinions opposite of others’ opinions 3.Researcher can over influence 4.Easy to overgeneralize findings

17. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.17 Storytelling as Narratives People tell stories as a way of knowing, understanding, and explaining their lives Stories organize and interpret their experiences Reliable guide to beliefs, attitudes, and values Uncover how isolated events are part of a larger environment Uncover justifications people give for past actions

18. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.18 Methods for Collecting Stories From one-on-one interviews Critical incident technique Positive or negative memorable events Exist naturally in everyday conversation Through some form of participant observation Print forms

19. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.19 Analyzing Narratives Top-down approach Literature provides rules and principles for analyzing narratives Research questions drive the analysis Bottom-up approach Allow themes to emerge from stories about same or similar events

20. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.20 Strengths and Limitations of Narrative Research Strengths 1.Richness and depth of data 2.Collect data about communication events that would be difficult or impossible to observe Limitations 1.Risk in asking participants to recall troubling or negative stories 2.Generalizability of findings can be restricted 3.Did participants embellish story?

21. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.21 Ethnography Study and representation of people and their interaction Holistic description of interactants in their cultural or subcultural group Researcher immersed into interaction field for long periods

22. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.22 Ethnographers Share the environment of those being studied Capture interaction as it occurs in its natural context Experience firsthand the problems, background, language, rituals, and social relations of a specific group of people

23. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.23 Characteristics of Ethnography Researchers are unlikely to have well- developed research questions Researcher must work with data that do not fit neatly into categories Focus is on one or a small number of cases Analysis produces deep, thick descriptions

24. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.24 Gaining Access Gain entry by becoming part of the interaction environment May already be a natural actor in that environment Must become integrated so others interact normally with and toward the researcher

25. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.25 Recording Observations Often not be able to take notes while participating Anything and everything is considered as data Notes kept in detailed journals or diaries

26. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.26 Strengths and Limitations of Ethnographic Research Strengths 1.Rich deep description 2.Researcher develops intimacy with communicators and context otherwise not possible Limitations 1.Time researcher must commit to project 2.Researcher must be saturated in the data to write the research report 3.Can overidentify with participants