1. How is psychology different from philosophy?

2. What qualifies  research as science? Psychological research must meet certain criteria in order to be considered scientific. Research must be: 1. Replicable 2. Falsifiable 3. Precise 4. Parsimonious

3. Replicable Research is replicable when others can repeat it and get the same results. Q: If something is only true once, should we trust it?

4. Falsifiable A good theory or hypothesis also must be falsifiable, which means that it must be stated in a way that makes it possible to reject it. In other words, we have to be able to prove a theory or hypothesis wrong.

5. Falsifiable Example: Some people theorize that the Loch Ness Monster not only exists but has become intelligent enough to elude detection by hiding in undiscovered, undetectable, underwater caves. This theory is not falsifiable. Researchers can never find these undiscovered caves or the monster that supposedly hides in them, and they have no way to prove this theory wrong.

6. Precise To make hypotheses more precise, psychologists use operational definitions to define the variables they study. Operational definitions state exactly how a variable will be measured. Ex.: A psychologist conducts an experiment to find out whether toddlers are happier in warm weather or cool weather. She needs to have an operational definition of happiness so that she can measure precisely how happy the toddlers are. She might operationally define happiness as “the number of smiles per hour.

7. Parsimonious The principle of parsimony maintains that researchers should apply the simplest explanation possible to any set of observations. Example: Suppose a student consistently falls asleep in her statistics class. She theorizes that before each class, her statistics professor secretly sprays her seat with a nerve gas that makes her very drowsy. If she had applied the principle of parsimony, she would not have come up with this theory. She can account for her sleepiness with a much simpler and more likely explanation: she finds statistics boring.

8. The Experiment An experiment involves a set of controlled conditions that aim to confirm a hypothesis. An experiment involves a set of controlled conditions that aim to confirm a hypothesis. Hypothesis refers to a statement of cause and effect: Hypothesis refers to a statement of cause and effect: “Higher environmental temperatures lead to more aggression.” “Higher environmental temperatures lead to more aggression.”

9. Experimental Variables To test a hypothesis, an experimenter defines the variables of the hypothesis: Cause: Independent variable (IV) Cause: Independent variable (IV) temperature: can be manipulated with intent temperature: can be manipulated with intent Effect: Dependent variable (DV) Effect: Dependent variable (DV) aggression: # of acts of verbal/aggression in an hour aggression: # of acts of verbal/aggression in an hour The experimenter “manipulates” the IV and measures the DV to test the hypothesis.

10. Experimental Issues Controls are important for determining causality the only difference between the experimental and control groups is the presence or absence of the IV. the only difference between the experimental and control groups is the presence or absence of the IV. Placebo effects represent changes in behavior that are related to expectations of a treatment. placebo effects are controlled by a “blind” control group placebo effects are controlled by a “blind” control group Experimenter bias refers to expectations that influence a participant’s behavior. example: Clever Hans, the horse who could do math example: Clever Hans, the horse who could do math can be controlled using double blind procedures can be controlled using double blind procedures

11. Non-Experimental Research Naturalistic observation refers to systematic recording of behavior in a natural state or habitat. e.g. observing apes in the wild e.g. observing apes in the wild Surveys are instruments designed to sample attitudes or behaviors. e.g., asking students at a rally how they feel about animal rights issues e.g., asking students at a rally how they feel about animal rights issues A case study is an in-depth study of a single person. e.g., Freud used the case study method to study anxiety e.g., Freud used the case study method to study anxiety Correlations refer to looking at the relationship between two variables without manipulating them.

12. Correlation Techniques The correlation technique assesses the degree of association between 2 variables. Correlations vary in direction: Positive association: increases in the value of variable 1 are associated with increases in variable 2 (e.g., smoking and risk of cancer) Positive association: increases in the value of variable 1 are associated with increases in variable 2 (e.g., smoking and risk of cancer) Negative association: increases in variable 1 are associated with decreases in the variable 2 (e.g., years of education and risk of Alzheimer’s disease) Negative association: increases in variable 1 are associated with decreases in the variable 2 (e.g., years of education and risk of Alzheimer’s disease) No relation: values of variable 1 are not related to variable 2 (e.g., years of education and height) No relation: values of variable 1 are not related to variable 2 (e.g., years of education and height) Correlations also vary in strength of the relationship -1 to 1

13. Interpreting Correlations Fig. 1.5

14. Correlation Take Home Line: Correlation does NOT imply causation!

15. What are the Goals of Psychology as a Science? Attempts to: 1. Describe behavior 2. Explain behavior 3. Predict behavior 4. Control behavior Uses scientific method, not common sense. Uses scientific method, not common sense.

16. Science vs. Common Sense Objective data collection Reliance on evidence Systematic observation Subjective data collection Ignores counterevidence Hit or miss observation

17. Science versus Pseudo-Science Systematic Systematic Testable Testable Reliable Reliable Unbiased Unbiased Self-Correcting Self-Correcting

18. Extending Evidence Specific truths are deduced from general truths Specific truths are deduced from general truths General truths are induced from specific truths General truths are induced from specific truths

19. Science & Proof A deduction is proven if the general premise is true and the logic is valid. A deduction is proven if the general premise is true and the logic is valid. An induction goes beyond the known data, and thus can never be proven. An induction goes beyond the known data, and thus can never be proven. Science does not prove things, because all information about the outside observable world is inductive.

20. Science Terminology: Hypothesis - a possible way things could be Hypothesis - a possible way things could be Theory - an explanation for the way things are, usually supported by a lot of data. Theory - an explanation for the way things are, usually supported by a lot of data. Advantages of science: Advantages of science: Scientific methods are deductive Scientific methods are deductive Science is more systematic, and less subject to human bias Science is more systematic, and less subject to human bias

21. Judging Theories Fit to the data Fit to the data Quality of the data Quality of the data Ability to predict Ability to predict Ability to explain Ability to explain Ability to control Ability to control

22. Pseudo-science Why people believe: Why people believe: People like excitement People like excitement People are prone to wishful thinking People are prone to wishful thinking People are naïve and trusting People are naïve and trusting People remember hits, ignore misses People remember hits, ignore misses

23. Psychological Research Two forms of psychological research: Two forms of psychological research: Basic research seeks answers for the purpose of increasing knowledge. Basic research seeks answers for the purpose of increasing knowledge. e.g. What role do the frontal lobes play in memory? e.g. What role do the frontal lobes play in memory? Applied research seeks answers for specific problems. Applied research seeks answers for specific problems. e.g. What types of memory strategies and rehabilitation strategies are most effective for people with frontal lobe injuries? e.g. What types of memory strategies and rehabilitation strategies are most effective for people with frontal lobe injuries?

24. Basic Cognitive Psychology Research Baldo et al. (1998)

25. LEFT Basic Cognitive Psychology Research Baldo et al. (1998)

26. Applied Cognitive Psychology

27. The Scientific Method

28. The Experiment An experiment involves a set of controlled conditions that aim to confirm a hypothesis. An experiment involves a set of controlled conditions that aim to confirm a hypothesis. Hypothesis refers to a statement of cause and effect: Hypothesis refers to a statement of cause and effect: “Higher environmental temperatures lead to more aggression.” “Higher environmental temperatures lead to more aggression.” “Exposure to marijuana increases appetite.” “Exposure to marijuana increases appetite.”

29. Experimental Variables To test a hypothesis, an experimenter defines the variables of the hypothesis: To test a hypothesis, an experimenter defines the variables of the hypothesis: Cause: Independent variable (IV) Cause: Independent variable (IV) marijuana: plain cigarette versus cigarette containing 5 mg of THC (the active ingredient in marijuana) marijuana: plain cigarette versus cigarette containing 5 mg of THC (the active ingredient in marijuana) Effect: Dependent variable (DV) Effect: Dependent variable (DV) appetite: grams of ice cream consumed in 1 hour appetite: grams of ice cream consumed in 1 hour The experimenter “manipulates” the IV and measures the DV to test the hypothesis. The experimenter “manipulates” the IV and measures the DV to test the hypothesis.

30. Experimental Issues Controls are important for determining causality Controls are important for determining causality the only difference between the experimental and control groups is the presence or absence of the IV. the only difference between the experimental and control groups is the presence or absence of the IV. Placebo effects represent changes in behavior that are related to expectations of a treatment. Placebo effects represent changes in behavior that are related to expectations of a treatment. placebo effects are controlled by a “blind” control group placebo effects are controlled by a “blind” control group Experimenter bias refers to expectations that influence a participant’s behavior. Experimenter bias refers to expectations that influence a participant’s behavior. example: Clever Hans, the horse who could do math example: Clever Hans, the horse who could do math can be controlled using double blind procedures can be controlled using double blind procedures

31. Non-Experimental Research Naturalistic observation refers to systematic recording of behavior in a natural state or habitat. Naturalistic observation refers to systematic recording of behavior in a natural state or habitat. e.g. observing apes in the wild e.g. observing apes in the wild Surveys are instruments designed to sample attitudes or behaviors. Surveys are instruments designed to sample attitudes or behaviors. e.g., asking students at a rally how they feel about animal rights issues e.g., asking students at a rally how they feel about animal rights issues A case study is an in-depth study of a single person. A case study is an in-depth study of a single person. e.g., Freud used the case study method to study anxiety e.g., Freud used the case study method to study anxiety Correlations refer to looking at the relationship between two variables without manipulating them. Correlations refer to looking at the relationship between two variables without manipulating them.

32. Correlation Techniques The correlation technique assesses the degree of association between 2 variables. The correlation technique assesses the degree of association between 2 variables. Correlations vary in direction: Correlations vary in direction: Positive association: increases in the value of variable 1 are associated with increases in variable 2 (e.g., smoking and risk of cancer) Positive association: increases in the value of variable 1 are associated with increases in variable 2 (e.g., smoking and risk of cancer) Negative association: increases in variable 1 are associated with decreases in the variable 2 (e.g., years of education and risk of Alzheimer’s disease) Negative association: increases in variable 1 are associated with decreases in the variable 2 (e.g., years of education and risk of Alzheimer’s disease) No relation: values of variable 1 are not related to variable 2 (e.g., years of education and height) No relation: values of variable 1 are not related to variable 2 (e.g., years of education and height) Correlations also vary in strength of the relationship. (-1 to 1) Correlations also vary in strength of the relationship. (-1 to 1)

33. Interpreting Correlations Fig. 1.5

34. Correlation Take Home Line: Correlation does NOT imply causation!

35. Stanley Milgram’s Obedience Study 1963 social psychology experiment, subjects thought they were shocking another person to promote “learning” 1963 social psychology experiment, subjects thought they were shocking another person to promote “learning” Many subjects delivered high level shocks and were upset when they later learned the true nature of the experiment Many subjects delivered high level shocks and were upset when they later learned the true nature of the experiment This study, and other factors, led to much more stringent APA research guidelines This study, and other factors, led to much more stringent APA research guidelines

36. What are APA Ethical Guidelines for human participants? informed consent informed consent awareness of risks awareness of risks confidentiality confidentiality deception can be used ONLY if benefits justify it and there is no other way to do the study deception can be used ONLY if benefits justify it and there is no other way to do the study

37. What are APA Ethical Guidelines for animal subjects? Researchers must ensure “appropriate consideration of [the animal’s] comfort, health, and humane treatment.” Researchers must ensure “appropriate consideration of [the animal’s] comfort, health, and humane treatment.” Animals may not be subjected to “pain or stress” when an alternative procedure is available. Animals may not be subjected to “pain or stress” when an alternative procedure is available.

38. Ethical Issues in Research Respecting the rights of human research participants involves: Respecting the rights of human research participants involves: Informed consent is an explanation of a study and the responsibilities of experimenter and participant. Informed consent is an explanation of a study and the responsibilities of experimenter and participant. Confidentiality of study information must be maintained. Confidentiality of study information must be maintained. Debriefing refers to explaining the research process to the participants at the end of the study. Debriefing refers to explaining the research process to the participants at the end of the study. Deception involving participants must be justified. Deception involving participants must be justified. Animal research must be justified and must minimize discomfort and pain. Animal research must be justified and must minimize discomfort and pain.

39. Modern Psychology Views Psychoanalytic view emphasizes the unconscious mind Psychoanalytic view emphasizes the unconscious mind Behaviorism focuses on objective and measurable behaviors Behaviorism focuses on objective and measurable behaviors Humanistic psychology emphasizes the inner-self and the importance of subjective feelings Humanistic psychology emphasizes the inner-self and the importance of subjective feelings Cognitive psychology focuses on mental function and reasoning Cognitive psychology focuses on mental function and reasoning

40. Modern Psychology Views Psychobiology views behavior as reflecting brain processes Psychobiology views behavior as reflecting brain processes Evolutionary psychology asserts that certain behavioral characteristics are subject to natural selection Evolutionary psychology asserts that certain behavioral characteristics are subject to natural selection Cultural psychology examines the influence of culture and ethnic practice on people’s behavior Cultural psychology examines the influence of culture and ethnic practice on people’s behavior

41. Take Home Concepts Hypothesis Hypothesis What type of study? What type of study? experimental, correlational, naturalistic experimental, correlational, naturalistic observation, case study observation, case study Independent variable(s) (IV) Independent variable(s) (IV) Dependent variable(s) (DV) Dependent variable(s) (DV) Control group Control group Were participants randomly sampled Were participants randomly sampled and assigned? and assigned? Ethical concerns Ethical concerns Potential experimenter and participant bias Potential experimenter and participant bias