1. Criminalistics An Introduction to Forensic Science CHAPTER Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved ELEVENTH EDITION Introduction 1

2. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein Definition In its broadest definition, forensic science is the application of science to criminal and civil laws. The subject matter of this book emphasizes the application of science to those criminal and civil laws that are enforced by police agencies in a criminal justice system.

3. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein Definition Forensic science owes its origins to individuals such as Bertillon, Galton, Lattes, Goddard, Osborn, and Locard, who developed the principles and techniques needed to identify or compare physical evidence.

4. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein FIGURE 1–1 A scene from CSI, a forensic science television show. SUN/Newscom

5. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein History Mathieu Orfila  The father of forensic toxicology. Alphonse Bertillion  Devised the first scientific system of personal identification in 1879.

6. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein FIGURE 1–3 Bertillon’s system of bodily measurements as used for the identification of an individual. Sirchie Fingerprint Laboratories

7. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein History Francis Galton  Conducted the first definitive study of fingerprints and their classification. Leone Lattes  Developed a procedure to determine blood type from dried bloodstains.

8. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein History Calvin Goddard  Used a comparison microscope to determine if a particular gun fired a bullet. Albert Osborn  Developed the fundamental principles of document examination.

9. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein History Walter McCrone  Utilized microscopy and other analytical methodologies to examine evidence. Hans Gross  Wrote the first treatise describing the application of scientific principles to the field of criminal investigation.

10. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein History Edmond Locard  Incorporared Gross’ principles within a workable crime laboratory. Locard’s Exchange Principle  States that when a criminal comes in contact with an object or person, a cross-transfer of evidence occurs.

11. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein The Crime Lab The ever increasing number of crime laboratories is partly the result of the following:  Supreme Court decisions in the 1960s responsible for police placing greater emphasis on scientifically evaluated evidence.

12. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein The Crime Lab The ever increasing number of crime laboratories is partly the result of the following:  Crime laboratories inundated with drug specimens due to accelerated drug abuse.  The advent of DNA profiling.

13. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein The Crime Lab The development of crime laboratories in the United States has been characterized by rapid growth accompanied by a lack of national and regional planning and coordination. At present, approximately 411 public crime laboratories operate at various levels of government—federal, state, county, and municipal.

14. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein Technical Support The technical support provided by crime laboratories can be assigned to five basic services.  Physical Science Unit incorporates the principles of chemistry, physics, and geology to identify and compare physical evidence.

15. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein Technical Support The technical support provided by crime laboratories can be assigned to five basic services.  Biology Unit applies the knowledge of biological sciences in order to investigate blood samples, body fluids, hair, and fiber samples.  Firearms Unit investigates discharged bullets, cartridge cases, shotgun shells, and ammunition.

16. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein Technical Support The technical support provided by crime laboratories can be assigned to five basic services.  Document Unit provides the skills needed for handwriting analysis and other questioned-document issues.

17. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein Technical Support The technical support provided by crime laboratories can be assigned to five basic services.  Photographic Unit applies specialized photographic techniques for recording and examining physical evidence. Some crime laboratories may offer a number of optional services.

18. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein Technical Support Optional Services by Full-Service Labs  Toxicology Unit examines body fluids and organs for the presence of drugs and poisons.  Latent Fingerprint Unit processes and examines evidence for latent fingerprints.  Polygraph Unit conducts polygraph or lie detector tests.

19. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein Technical Support Optional Services by Full-Service Labs  Voiceprint Analysis Unit attempts to tie a recorded voice to a particular suspect.  Evidence-Collection Unit dispatches specially trained personnel to the crime scene to collect and preserve physical evidence.

20. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein Analyzing Physical Evidence Requires Utilizing the Scientific Method The Scientific Method:  Formulate a question worthy of investigation.  Formulate a reasonable hypothesis to answer the question.  Test the hypothesis through experimentation.  Upon validation of the hypothesis, it become suitable as scientific evidence.

21. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein Skills of a Forensic Scientist A forensic scientist must be skilled in applying the principles and techniques of the physical and natural sciences to the analysis of the many types of evidence that may be recovered during a criminal investigation.

22. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein Skills of a Forensic Scientist A forensic scientist may also provide expert court testimony. An expert witness is an individual whom the court determines possesses knowledge relevant to the trial that is not expected of the average person.

23. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein Skills of a Forensic Scientist The expert witness is called on to evaluate evidence based on specialized training and experience that the court lacks the expertise to do. The expert will then express an opinion as to the significance of the findings.

24. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein Skills of a Forensic Scientist The necessity for the forensic scientist to appear in court has been imposed on the criminal justice system by the case of Melendez-Diaz v. Massachusetts.

25. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein The Frye Standard The Frye v. United States decision set guidelines for determining the admissibility of scientific evidence into the courtroom. To meet the Frye standard, the evidence in question must be “generally accepted” by the scientific community.

26. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein Frye Not Absolute However, in the 1993 case of Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceutical, Inc., the U.S. Supreme Court asserted that the Frye standard is not an absolute prerequisite to the admissibility of scientific evidence.

27. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein Frye Not Absolute Trial judges were said to be ultimately responsible as “gatekeepers” for the admissibility and validity of scientific evidence presented in their courts, as well as all expert testimony.

28. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein The Daubert Criteria In Daubert, the Supreme Court offered some guidelines as to how a judge can gauge scientific evidence: 1.Whether the scientific technique or theory can be (and has been) tested. 2.Whether the technique or theory has been subject to peer review and publication. 3.The technique’s potential rate of error.

29. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein The Daubert Criteria In Daubert, the Supreme Court offered some guidelines as to how a judge can gauge scientific evidence: 4.Existence and maintenance of standards controlling the technique’s operation. 5.Whether the scientific theory or method has attracted widespread acceptance within a relevant scientific community.

30. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein Special Forensic Science Services A number of special forensic science services are available to the law enforcement community to augment the services of the crime laboratory. These services include forensic psychiatry, forensic odontology, computer science, and forensic engineering.

31. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein Special Forensic Science Services Forensic Psychiatry is an area in which the relationship between human behavior and legal proceedings is examined. Forensic Odontology involves using teeth to provide information about the identification of victims when a body is left in an unrecognizable state; also investigates bite marks.

32. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein Special Forensic Science Services Forensic Engineering is concerned with failure analysis, accident reconstruction, and causes and origins of fires or explosions. Forensic Computer Science involves the examination of digital evidence.

33. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein Evidence Collection Training Many crime laboratories have “evidence technicians,” trained by the crime lab staff, on 24-hour call for evidence collection at crime scenes. Training ensures all pertinent evidence will be recognized and collected properly.

34. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein Evidence Collection Training Where no formal training exists, familiarity can be gained through lectures, tours of the lab, and evidence collection manuals.

35. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 11e Richard Saferstein Technical Support Document Unit provides the skills needed for handwriting analysis and other questioned-document issues. Photographic Unit applies specialized photographic techniques for recording and examining physical evidence. Some crime laboratories may offer a number of optional services.