1. Introduction Language and Linguistics

2. Preview Introduction: importance of language Communication systems Functions of language Universal properties of language Definitions of language Approaches to the study of language

3. Language A means to pass a record of what has happened from one generation to the next through stories and sagas, even before written records Development of tools to meet a broad range of needs – impossible without language

4. Language Capacity for self-awareness and abstract thought – dependent on language The ability to transfer complex information, to discuss the meaning of events and outcomes of alternative actions, to share feelings and ideas – impossible without language

5. Communication Communication – transfer of information Sign – a basic unit of communication Sign – sth that stands for sth else to communicate it (communicate = to make sth common)

6. Communication signcommunicationhumananimal Passage of information, formulation of inferences

7. Communication humannaturalverbal non-verbal (gestures, etc.) artificial (street signs)

8. Code Sender intentionally produces a sign for the recipient How can the recipient interpret the sign? Code – a set of signs, determined by convention, that provides the rules of interpretation All communication systems - codes

9. Semiotic triangle

10. Functions of language R. Jakobson’s classification Channel (contact) Phatic f. Sender (emotive or expressive f.) Message (poetic f.) Code (metalinguistic f.) Context Referential f.) Receiver (conative f.)

11. Language functions Emotive (expressive)-expresses the speaker’s feelings (“What a surprise!”) Referential – information about external reality Conative – making the recipient act in a particular way (“Open the window!”) Phatic – establishing contact (“Hello!”) Poetic function – focuses on the message (Carl Sandburg: “The fog comes in on little cat feet”; metaphor) Metalinguistic – focuses on the code “What’s the subject of this sentence?”

12. Properties of language Freedom from stimulus Distancing Social transferability Transferability of medium Multifunctionality

13. Freedom from stimulus Language – independent from stimuli, i.e. external aspects of a situation Distinguishes human from animal language Human verbal messages – free, no deterministic aspect

14. Distancing The possibility to formulate messages which are distant in space and time – characteristic of human language as opposed to animal communication

15. Social transferability Anthropologically, any language is socially and culturally transmitted Any human being acquires at least one language (mother tongue) and can learn other languages Innate language faculty: universal properties of language – empty slots filled by material provided by the environment

16. Transferability of medium: spoken and written Primacy of the spoken language: Ontogenetic (a child first learns to speak) Filogenetic (writing developed much later in human history) Social primacy of the written language in modern societies (higher cultural prestige; science, education, law)

17. Multifunctionality of language Expresses thought Transmits information Initiates, maintains and regulates cooperative activities and social relationships Expresses feelings and states of mind Resolves problems Creates possible worlds (literary creation)

18. Universal properties of language Although languages differ in many ways, they are made possible by the same genetic information, processed in the brain in the same ways and they share some fundamental features and structural characteristics Understanding and explaining the properties which are universal to all languages, as well as those which vary across languages – task of linguistics

19. Universal properties of language Modularity Compositionality and recursion Discreteness Productivity Arbitrariness Reliance on context Variability

20. Modularity Language – a modular system: produced and interpreted by using a set of component subsystems (or modules) in a coordinated way Different regions of the brain – associated with different aspects of language processing

21. Modularity Production and interpretation of speech sounds – phonetics Words and their structure – morphology Structure of sentences – syntax Lexicon – interacting with these properties Meaning – semantics Discourse - organization of language beyond the sentence

22. Compositionality and recursion Languages – organized into constituents, allowing more complex units to enter structures where simpler ones are also possible

23. Compositionality: examples She sat down. The smart woman sat down. The tall, dark-haired, smart woman with the bright red sweater and pearl necklace sat down.

24. Recursion Property of language which allows grammatical processes to be applied repeatedly, combining constituents to produce and infinite variety of sentences of indefinite length

25. Recursion Profound implications – noone can learn a language by memorizing all the sentences of that language, so there must be another explanation for how human beings are able to learn them The human brain – finite, but recursiveness means that it is capable of producing and understanding an infinite number of sentences

26. Productivity Language can always produce messages that have never been produced before Infinite combinations of basic units whose number is limited Rule-based creativity: infinite productivity based on a limited number of principles and rules

27. Discretness Units of language are not continuous; there is a limit between one element and the next

28. Discreteness Language – composed of sounds, words, sentences etc. The fact that we hear speech as a sequence of individual sounds, words and sentences – incredible accomplishment Children in the first year or two learn to pick out words from the stream of speech with no instruction

29. Reliance on context Pronounciation of one and won: the same sequence of sounds can represent different concepts in the same language The meaning of a sentence depends on the context in which it is uttered The context: sentence or sentences which precede it, or the broader physical or social circumstances in which the sentence is uttered

30. Reliance on context: examples It’s cold in here – could be a complaint, a request to close the window, or even a compliment Languages rely on the connection between form (what is said) and context (when, where, by whom, and to whom it is said) to communicate much more than is contained in a sequence of words.

31. Variability The language people use varies depending on who’s speaking and the situation in which they are speaking Variation – essence of information Variability of language – indexical Speakers vary the language they use to signal their social identities (geographical, social status, ethnicity, gender) and also to define the immediate speech situation

32. Variability People show who they are by the variety of language they use - they reveal their geographical origin and social status. They signal membership in a range of overlapping social groups: male or female, teenager or adult, member of an ethic group, etc.

33. Variability People also use language variation to communicate the situation and purpose in which they are talking, as well as the roles they are playing in those situations

34. The descriptive approach Language – universal characteristic of human beings All languages (and language varieties) – equal Language varieties differ because over time they have adapted to differing needs of their speech communities Each language – equally functional in meeting the communicative needs of its speech community

35. The descriptive approach Sometimes when two or more speech communities come into contact, one group will have more power; the language variety of the dominant group is often perceived as having higher status as well, especially if speaking it affords increased access to power or wealth; language varieties spoken by the less powerful groups – often stigmatized as “incorrect” or “bad” language

36. The descriptive approach Linguists take language as they find it, rather than attempting to regulate it in the direction of preconceived criteria

37. Language A finite system of elements and principles that make it possible for speakers to construct sentences for particular communicative functions

38. Grammatical competence Knowing the meanings signified by different sound sequences and how to combine units of meaning into words, phrases and sentences

39. Communicative competence To be effective, speakers have to combine grammatical competence with the knowledge of how to use grammatical sentences appropriately to the purpose and context at hand

40. Defining language the knowledge included in the grammatical competence + the ability to use that knowledge to accomplish a wide range of communicative tasks – language

41. Definition of language Language is a) a code B) which organizes a system of signs which are C) primarily phonic-acoustic D) fundamentally arbitrary F) capable of expressing anything G) possessed as interiorized knowledge which allows to produce infinite sentences starting from a limited number of elements

42. General principles for the analysis of language Synchronic and diachronic approach Langue et parole Paradigmatic and syntagmatic axis Levels of analysis

43. Synchronic and diachronic study Syn (‘with’) + chronos (‘time’) Dia (‘across’) + chronos Diachrony – study of language over time (history) Synchrony – study of language at a definite moment in time Two approaches - complementary

44. Langue et parole Distinction between the abstract system (langue) and its concrete realization (parole): Ferdinand de Saussure System and use (Louis Hjelmslev) Competence and performance (Noam Chomsky)

45. Langue et parole Langue (system, competence) – a set of interiorized rules of a language that constitute our capacity to produce messages in a certain language; abstract, unconscious competence shared by all members of a linguistic community Parole – individual linguistic act, concrete realization of a message in a particular language

46. Langue et parole Langue et parole: opposition between the abstract, social and constant on the one hand (langue) and concrete, individual and variable on the other (parole)

47. Paradigmatic and syntagmatic axis Paradigmatic axis concerns relations on the level of the system, syntagmatic axis concerns relations on the level of structures that realize the potentialities of the system Paradigmatic and syntagmatic dimensions constitute a double perspective according to which the structures, combinations of linguistic signs, function

48. Paradigmatic and syntagmatic axis Syntagmatic axis Paradigmatic axis

49. Levels of analysis Phonetics and phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics

50. Levels of analysis Phonetics and phonology Morphology SyntaxLexicon and semantics Physical reality External world cognitively codified

51. Levels of analysis Phonetics and phonology, semantics – link with external reality Phonetics – physical support to communication Semantics: conceptualisation and cognitive categorisation of our world

52. Levels of analysis Morphology and syntax – internal levels on which the system is organised according to the principles that govern the language faculty

53. The diversity of linguistics General linguistics Historical linguistics Language acquisition Sociolinguistics Psycholinguistics Cognitive linguistics Computational linguistics Corpus linguistics Applied linguistics (foreign language learning, LSP, translation studies, forensic linguistics etc.)

54. Summary Communication systems Functions of language Universal properties of language Study of language