1. 1 Chapter 18 Nomadic Empires and Eurasian Integration

2. 2 Nomadic Society Variety of Turkish peoples Rainfall in central Asia too little to support large-scale agriculture  Small-scale (supplemental) farming Grazing animals thrive, central Asians turn to animal herding  Food  Clothing  Shelter (yurts) Not aimless wandering but migratory patterns to follow pastureland

3. 3 Nomads in Turkmenistan

4. 4 Nomadic Economy Some small-scale trading, but extensive knowledge of trade routes Engage in long-distance travel as organizers  Caravan routes

5. 5 Nomadic Society Social classes—commoners and nobles  Nobles seldom rule, unless in war  Then rule is absolute Daily governance clan-based Charismatic individuals become nobles, occasionally assert authority Unusually fluid status for nobility  Hereditary, but could be lost through incompetence  Advancement for meritorious non-nobles

6. 6 Nomadic Religion Early on, shamans center of pagan worship Appeal of Buddhism, Nestorian, Islam, Manichaeism from 6 th c Most convert to Islam in 10 th – 14 th c  Saljuqs first due to Abbasid influence

7. 7 Military Organization Large confederations under a ruler referred to as a khan Authority extended through tribal elders Exceptionally strong cavalries  Mobility  Speed  Short, recurved bows

8. 8 Saljuq Turks and the Abbasid Empire 8-10 th c Turkish peoples on border of Abbasid empire  Serve in Abbasid armies  Eventually come to dominate Abbasid caliphs 1055 CE Saljuq leader Tughril Beg recognized as sultan  Consolidated hold on Baghdad, then to other parts of the empire Abbasid caliphs served as figureheads of authority

9. 9 Saljuq Turks and the Byzantine Empire Begin migrating into Anatolia early 11 th c  1071 Saljuq Turks defeat Byzantine army at Manzikert, take emperor captive Remake Anatolia politically and socially  Many conversions to Islam Ottoman Turks conquer Constantinople 1453 Anatolia becomes Turkish and Islamic

10. 10 Ghaznavid Turks in Northern India Mahmud of Ghazni of Afghanistan, invades northern India  First for plunder, later to rule  Northern India dominated by 13 th century  Establish Sultanate of Delhi Sultanate undergoes attacks from local rulers; holds out Strong persecution of Buddhists, Hindus  Pushes for conversions

11. The Mongol Empires 11

12. 12 Chinggis Khan and the Making of the Mongol Empire Temüjin (b. 1167)  Father prominent warrior, poisoned c. 1177, Temujin forced into poverty Mastered steppe diplomacy, elimination of enemies Brought all Mongol tribes into one confederation 1206 proclaimed Chinggis Khan: “Universal Ruler”

13. 13 Mongol Political Organization Chinggis Khan changes how Mongols are governed  Break up tribal organization  Formed military units of different tribes  Promoted officials on basis of merit and loyalty Established distinctly non-nomadic capital at Karakorum

14. 14 Mongol Army Mongol population only 1 million (less than 1% of Chinese population)  Army appx. 100-125,000 Strengths:  Cavalry  Short bows  Rewarded enemies who surrender, cruel to enemies who fight Begin military conquests

15. 15 Mongol Conquests Conquest of China by 1220 Conquest of Afghanistan, Persia  Emissaries murdered, following year Chinggis Khan destroys ruler Ravaged lands to prevent future rebellions  Large-scale, long-term devastation On death of Chinggis Khan, realm is divided into four empires (khanates)

16. 16 The Mongol Empires c.1300 CE

17. 17 The Mongols and Western Integration “Pax Mongolia” Experienced with long-distance trade  Protection of traveling merchants  Volume of trade across central Asia increases Diplomatic missions protected Missionary activity increases

18. 18 The Great Khan—China Khubilai Khan (grandson of Chinggis Khan) consolidates rule of China  Ruthless warrior, but religiously tolerant Hosted Marco Polo Establishes Yuan dynasty Unsuccessful forays into Vietnam, Cambodia, Burma, Java Two attempted invasions of Japan (1274, 1281) turned back by typhoons (kamikaze: “divine winds”)

19. 19 Mongol Rule in China Strive to maintain strict separation from Chinese  Intermarriage forbidden  Chinese forbidden to study Mongol language Import administrators from other areas (esp. Arabs, Persians) No desire to assimilate Chinese culture  No support for Confucianism; wither away Yet tolerated religious freedoms

20. 20 The Mongols and Buddhism Shamanism remains popular Lamaist school of Buddhism (Tibet) gains strength among Mongols  Large element of magic, similar to shamanism  Ingratiating attitude to Mongols: khans as incarnations of Buddha

21. 21 Decline of the Yuan Dynasty Mongols spend bullion that supported paper currency  Public loses confidence in paper money, prices rise From 1320s, major power struggles Bubonic plague spreads 1330-1340s 1368 Mongols flee peasant rebellion

22. 22 The Ilkhanate of Persia Abbasid empire toppled Baghdad sacked, 1258  Loot city, kill Caliph, 200,000 massacred Attempted expansion into Syria checked by Muslim Egyptian forces

23. 23 Mongol Rule in Persia Nomadic conquerors had to learn to rule sedentary societies  Inexperience leads to loss of control of most lands within a century Persia: depends on (local) existing administration  Relative free hand as long as deliver tax revenues  Left matters of governance to bureaucracy Eventually assimilated into Islamic lifestyle  Conversion to Islam  Persecution of non-Muslims; Persia again privileged

24. 24 Decline of the Mongol Ilkhanate Overspending, poor tax returns from overburdened peasantry Ilkhan attempts to replace precious metal currency with paper in 1290s  Failure, forced to rescind Factional fighting Last Ilkhan dies without heir in 1335; Mongol rule collapses

25. 25 The Golden Horde—Russia Conquest of Russia, 1237-1241  Established tributary relationship that lasts to 15 th century  Rule over Crimea to late 18 th century Raids into Poland, Hungary, Germany

26. 26 Surviving Mongol Khanates Khanate of Chaghatai in central Asia  Continued threat to China Golden Horde in Caucasus and steppes to mid-16 th century  Continued threat to Russia  Remain in Crimea to 18 th c

27. After the Mongols… Tamerlane 27

28. 28 Tamerlane the Conqueror (c. 1336-1405) Turkish conqueror Timur  Timur the Lame: Tamerlane  Tamerlane the Whirlwind United nomads in Khanate of Chaghatai Major military campaigns following decline of khanates in Persia, Afghanistan, Caucuses  Built capital in Samarkand

29. 29 The Mongol Empires c.1300 CE

30. 30 Tamerlane’s Empire c. 1405 CE

31. 31 Tamerlane’s Heirs Poor organization of governing structure Power struggles divide empire into four regions Yet heavily influenced several empires:  Mughal  Safavid  Ottoman

32. 32 The Ottoman Empire Ethnic Turks move into Anatolia after Persian Ilkhanate established Osman, charismatic leader rises to dominate northwestern part of Anatolia Declares independence from Saljuq sultan, 1299  Attacks Byzantine empire  Followers known as Osmanlis (Ottomans)

33. 33 Ottoman Conquests 1350s conquests in the Balkans Local support for Ottoman invasion  Peasants unhappy with fragmented, ineffective Byzantine rule Tamerlane defeats Ottoman forces in 1402, but recover by 1440s

34. 34 The Capture of Constantinople, 1453 Sultan Mehmed II (“Mehmed the Conqueror”) Renamed city Istanbul, capital of Ottoman empire