1. RHETORIC

2. DEFINITION OF RHETORIC
a thoughtful, reflective activity (written or spoken) leading to effective communication, including rational exchange of opposing viewpoints
“The faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion”- Aristotle
A tool that can be used to appeal to an audience of one or many
to resolve conflicts without confrontation, persuade readers, move people to take action

3. KEY ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC
CONTEXT
PURPOSE
THESIS
SPEAKER
AUDIENCE
SPEAKER (WRITER)
(ARISTOTELIAN TRIANGLE)
AUDIENCE (READER)
SUBJECT (TOPIC)

4. CONTEXT:
rhetoric is always situational
the occasion, time and place rhetoric is written or spoken
-can arise from current events or
cultural bias
PURPOSE:
the goal that the speaker or writer wants
to achieve

5. PURPOSES FOR WRITING EXPRESS AND REFLECT INFORM AND EXPLAIN
EVALUATE AND JUDGE
INQUIRE AND EXPLORE
ANALYZE AND INTERPRET
TAKE A STAND/PROPOSE A SOLUTION
OTHERS: Win agreement, persuade to take action, evoke sympathy, make someone laugh, inform, provoke, celebrate, repudiate, put forth a proposal, secure support, bring about a favorable decision

6. THESIS:
the main idea of your rhetoric must be crystal clear
a claim or assertion
SPEAKER (writer)
a writer considers the PERSONA they are writing as poet, comedian, scholar, expert, literary critic, concerned citizen
AUDIENCE
determines style and organization of your piece
what do they know about the subject? What’s its attitude toward the subject?

7. APPEALS TO ETHOS, LOGOS, PATHOS
ETHOS: character
-appealing to ethos demonstrates that
the author is credible and trustworthy
-emphasizes shared values between
the speaker and the audience
-sometimes a speaker’s reputation immediately establishes ethos
-TONE effects ETHOS

8. LOGOS: reason
appeal to LOGOS by offering clear, rational ideas
having a clear, main idea or thesis with specific details, examples, facts, statistical data, or expert testimony as support
ideas must be logical
make assumptions about the reader
acknowledge a counter argument (anticipate opposing views)

9. PATHOS: emotion
appeal to emotion
choose language that engages the emotions of the audience
connotation of words, vivid and concrete description, figurative language, adding visual elements
propaganda (arguments that appeal solely to emotion – usually very weak)

10. ARRANGEMENT OF RHETORIC
THE CLASSIC MODEL
Five-part structure
-introduction (exordium)
-narration (narration)
-confirmation (confirmatio)
-refutation (refutation)
-conclusion (peroratio)

11. Introduction (“exordium”)
introduces the reader to the subject under discussion
“beginning a web”
can be a single paragraph or several
draws the reader into a text by piquing their interest, challenging them or otherwise getting their attention
often where ETHOS is established

12. narration (“narratio”)
provides factual information and background material on the subject
or establishes why the subject is a problem that needs addressing
level of detail here depends on audiences knowledge of subject

13. confirmation (“confirmatio”)
usually the major part of the text
nuts and bolts: most specific, concrete details of the text
makes strongest appeal to logos

14. refutation (“refutation”)
addresses the counterargument

15. conclusion (peroratio)
can be one paragraph or several
brings the essay to a satisfying close
writer appeals to pathos and reminds reader of ethos established earlier
does not just repeat what has gone before, but brings all the writers ideas together and answers the question “SO WHAT?”
the last words are most likely what the audience will remember

16. PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT
Writers pick a certain pattern depending on their purpose:
NARRATION
DESCRIPTION
PROCESS ANALYSIS
EXEMPLIFICATION
COMPARE/CONTRAST
CLASSIFICATION
DEFINITION
CAUSE/EFFECT

17. NARRATION telling a story or recounting a series of events
can be based on personal experience or knowledge gained from reading or observation
usually chronological
includes concrete detail, a point of view, elements such as dialogue
not simply telling an appealing story, but crafting a story that SUPPORTS YOUR THESIS (YOU MUST HAVE A POINT/REASON FOR TELLING THE STORY!! DECIDE WHAT THAT IS, THEN INCLUDE ONLY DETAILS THAT SUPPORT THAT POINT)
often used as a way to draw readers into a subject

18. DESCRIPTION
like narration, but emphasizes the senses by painting a picture of how something looks, sounds smells tastes or feels.
often used to establish a mood or atmosphere
rarely is an entire essay descriptive (but it can make writing more persuasive: SHOWING IS MORE EFFECTIVE THAN TELLING – will make readers empathize with you)

19. PROCESS ANALYSIS
explains how something works, how to do something or how something was done
the key to successful process analysis is CLARITY
use clear, logical language
use transitions that make the sequence of major steps, stages or phases in the process

20. EXEMPLIFICATION providing examples to make a point
turns a general idea into a concrete one
INDUCTION: a series of specific examples that lead to a general conclusion

21. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
juxtaposing two things to highlight their similarities and differences
often used for literary analysis – to compare method, style and purpose of two texts
can be organized subject-by-subject or point-by-point
example: compare/contrast two candidates:
subject-by-subject: discuss one candidate fully, then the other
point-by-point: discuss where each candidate stands on different issues

22. CLASSIFICATION AND DIVISION
sorting material or ideas into major categories

23. DEFINITION
defining something ensures the reader and writer are on the same page
often the first step in a debate or disagreement
might be only a paragraph or might be an entire essay

24. CAUSE AND EFFECT
analyzing the causes that lead to a certain effect (or vice versa)
a powerful foundation for an argument
often signaled by a “why” in the title or first paragraph