1. Areas of High Biodiversity Under Threat
Gwen Raitt
Biodiversity and Conservation Biology Department
BCB 705:
Biodiversity

2. Retaining Biodiversity
In previous chapters the loss of biodiversity was considered. Logically, in view of this loss, steps must be taken to preserve biodiversity. So how does one preserve the maximum amount of biodiversity?
Here four factors are highlighted for consi- deration in developing conservation strategies:
The distribution of biodiversity,
The immediacy of the threat of loss,
The representation of all species, habitats, ecosystems, etc. in protected areas,
The cost of conservation action.
In this chapter the following concepts are mentioned: megadiverse (or megadiversity) countries, ecoregions and hotspots.
The chapter focuses on the hotspot concept.
In previous chapters the loss of biodiversity was considered. Logically, in view of this loss, steps must be taken to preserve biodiversity. So how does one preserve the maximum amount of biodiversity? Here four factors are highlighted for consideration in developing conservation strategies and priorities (for a more comprehensive look at biodiversity conservation, see the Conservation Biology course chapters 6, 9-13). Firstly, the distribution of biodiversity (Myers 1988, 1990, Myers et al. 2000) which is affected by the scale at which it is considered and the taxa that are studied (Prendergast et al. 1993a, Tylianakis 2006). Additionally, apparent distribution patterns are affected by the quality of the data used in the study (for many taxa the distribution data are not available or limited so assumptions are made based on the distribution of known taxa) (Reid 1998). Data quality is in turn affected by the distribution of recorders and the spread of recorder effort (Prendergast et al. 1993b). Secondly, the immediacy of the threat of loss is regarded as a guide to prioritising areas for conservation action (Myers 1988, 1990, Myers et al. 2000). Thirdly, the representation of all species, habitats, ecosystems, etc. in protected areas (which is a fundamental goal of conservation) forms a basis for conservation thinking (Williams et al. 1996, Olson et al. 2001) and finally the cost of conservation action which limits conservation action and makes prioritisation necessary (Myers 1988, 1990, Williams et al. 1996). In this chapter the following are mentioned: megadiverse (or megadiversity) countries, ecoregions and hotspots. The chapter focuses on the hotspot concept.

3. Megadiverse Countries
Megadiverse (or megadiversity) countries are defined by their high species richness and high levels of endemism at species and higher taxonomic levels (Mittermeier 1988, Williams et al. 2001). The World Conservation Monitoring Centre identified 17 megadiverse countries in Together, these countries contain more than 70% of the global species diversity (Williams et al. 2001). These countries reflect the uneven distribution of biodiversity over the globe. This classification of megadiverse countries uses political boundaries to indicate priority conservation areas. The approach is complementary to the hotspot approach (Myers 1990). The countries in the numerical order on the map are: 1 Australia, 2 Brazil, 3 China, 4 Colombia, 5 Democratic Republic of the Congo, 6 Ecuador, 7 India, 8 Indonesia, 9 Madagascar, 10 malaysia, 11 Mexico, 12 Peru, 13 Philippines, 14 South Africa, 15 Papua new Guinea, 16 United States of America and 17 Venezuela.
See the notes for the names of the countries.

4. Ecoregions
The term ‘ecoregion’ is used by Bailey, Omernik and the United States branch of the World Wildlife Fund (US-WWF).
Bailey defined ecoregions as areas representing groups of ecosystems that function in a similar way.
Omernik defined ecosystems as areas that show similar mosaics of ecosystems, environmental resources and human impacts.
The US-WWF’s terrestrial ecoregion was defined as “relatively large units of land containing a distinct assemblage of natural communi-ties and species, with boundaries that approximate the original ex-tent of natural communities prior to major land-use change”. This definition was generalised (now ecoregion not terrestrial ecoregion) to include water and expanded by adding “ecological dynamics, and environmental conditions”.
The ‘Global 200’ is a prioritization scheme that evaluates the ter-restrial, freshwater and marine realms using ecoregions. The ‘Glo-bal 200’ identified 238 ecoregions as priority conservation areas.
The term ‘ecoregion’ is used by Bailey and Omernik (in the context of land use planning) and the United States branch of the World Wildlife Fund (US-WWF) (for conservation planning) as part of biogeographic schemes (Wright et al. 1998, Olson et al. 2001, Jepson & Whittaker 2002, Olson & Dinerstein 2002). Bailey defined ecoregions as areas representing groups of ecosystems that function in a similar way. Omernik defined ecosystems as areas that show similar mosaics of ecosystems, environmental resources and human impacts (Wright et al. 1998). The US-WWF’s terrestrial ecoregion was defined as “relatively large units of land containing a distinct assemblage of natural communities and species, with boundaries that approximate the original extent of natural communities prior to major land-use change” (p 933 Olson et al. 2001). This definition was generalised (now ecoregion not terrestrial ecoregion) in the papers concerning the ‘Global 200’ ecoregions to include water and expanded by adding “ecological dynamics, and environmental conditions” so that the ‘ecoregion’ is defined as “a relatively large unit of land or water containing a characteristic set of natural communities that share a large majority of their species, ecological dynamics, and environmental conditions” (p 200 Olson & Dinerstein 2002). The ‘Global 200’ is a prioritization scheme that evaluates the terrestrial, freshwater and marine realms using ecoregions to identify conservation priorities. Where adjacent ecoregions of the same type (terrestrial, freshwater or marine) were selected, they were merged to form one ecoregion for the prioritization scheme. The ‘Global 200’ identified 238 ecoregions as priority conservation areas (Olson & Dinerstein 2002).

5. Ecoregions (2)
The US-WWF base their terrestrial ecoregions on existing biogeo-graphic schemes with modifications based on expert opinion but no existing scheme is used consistently. In the United States, US-WWF follow Omernik’s scheme.
Omernik’s scheme is not congruent with the vegetation patterns.
The use of different existing biogeographic schemes in different places at the finest scale raises the question of the repeatability of the methods used.
New schemes like the US-WWF’s ecoregions may weaken conserva-tion efforts by:
Taking money that could be used for field conservation,
Implying that the science conservation efforts were based on is somehow inferior.
From the literature (see the notes), US-WWF is hard selling ecore-gions which, in my opinion, makes the science involved suspect.
The US-WWF base their terrestrial ecoregions on existing biogeographic schemes with modifications based on expert opinion but no existing scheme is used consistently (Olson et al. 2001, Jepson & Whittaker 2002). In the United States, US-WWF follow Omernik’s scheme. As with all biogeographic schemes, no framework represents all taxa equally well; map edges are sharp whereas reality involves a variety of ecotones and finally, most ecoregions will contain habitats different to the assigned habitat (Olson et al. 2001). Wright et al. (1998) point out that Omernik’s scheme is not congruent with the vegetation patterns. No vegetation type occupied more than 55% of any of Omernik’s ecoregions at his finest scale. The congruence was least at the coarsest scale. Most vegetation types occurred in several different ecoregions at low percentages of the individual ecoregion’s area (Wright et al. 1998). Even allowing for the caveat that ecoregions will contain atypical habitat, this is poor and brings into question the quality of the representation provided by US-WWF’s ecoregions for North America. The use of different existing biogeographic schemes in different places at the finest scale raises the question of the repeatability of the methods used (Jepson & Whittaker 2002). New schemes like the US-WWF’s ecoregions may weaken conservation efforts by taking money that could be used for field conservation and implying that the science conservation efforts were based on is somehow inferior (Jepson & Whittaker 2002). From the literature (Olson & Dinerstein 1998, 2002, Olson et al. 2001, Jepson & Whittaker 2002, Wikramanayake et al. 2002), US-WWF is hard selling ecoregions which, in my opinion, makes the science involved suspect and leads me to suspect that money (and possibly also status) is somehow involved.
Additional Notes:
Extract from wikipedia ~ An ecotone is a transition area between two adjacent ecological communities (ecosystems). It may appear on the ground as a gradual blending of the two communities across a broad area, or it may manifest itself as a sharp boundary line.
Changes in the physical environment may produce a sharp boundary, as in the example of a shoreline or the interface between areas of forest and cleared land. Elsewhere, a more gradually blended interface area will be found, where species from each community will be found together as well as unique local species. Mountain ranges often create such ecotones, due to the wide variety of climatic conditions experienced on their slopes. They may also provide a boundary between species due to the obstructive nature of their terrain; Mont Ventoux in France is a good example, marking the boundary between the flora and fauna of northern and southern France.
Ecotones are particularly significant for mobile animals, as they can exploit more than one set of habitats within a short distance. This can produce an edge effect along the boundary line, with the area displaying a greater than usual diversity of species.
The word was coined from a combination of eco(logy) plus -tone, from the Greek tonos or tension – in other words, a place where ecologies are in tension.

6. Hotspots The term ‘hotspot’ is used to define many different things.
In conservation biology, the term may refer to a geographical area in which any or any combination of the following traits is unusually high: species richness, levels of endemism, numbers of rare or threatened species, levels of taxonomically unusual species or intensity of threat.
Biodiversity hotspots were originally defined by Dr. Norman Myers as areas with unusually high species concentrations and high ende-mism levels which are exceptionally threatened with destruction.
This definition was later refined to areas with unusually high ende-mism (defined using vascular plants as areas containing a minimum 0.5 % of the earth’s plant species as endemics) that are experiencing extremely high rates of habitat loss.
25 biodiversity hotspots were defined using the re- fined definition.
9 new hotspots have been suggested since.
The term ‘hotspot’ is used to define many different things (Wikipedia Contributors 2006a). In conservation biology, the term may refer to a geographical area in which any or any combination of the following traits is unusually high: species richness, levels of endemism, numbers of rare or threatened species, levels of taxonomically unusual species or intensity of threat (Reid 1998, Myers et al. 2000). Species richness is most frequently used to define hotspots (Reid 1998) – see for example, Prendergast et al. (1993 a, b) and Williams et al. (1996). Reid (1998) suggests that the hotspot concept is best used at coarse scales (i.e. continental or global scales). Balmford (1998) suggests that the idea is still useful at finer scales because the priority areas for one taxon will include habitat types used by other taxa and thus conserve other taxa to some degree (though not comprehensively). The degree to which the selection of priority reserves for a single taxon will conserve other taxa is dependant on the number of species in the chosen taxon – using a relatively species rich taxon results in better coverage of other taxa than using a relatively species poor taxon (Balmford 1998). Biodiversity hotspots were originally defined by Dr. Norman Myers (Reid 1998) as areas with unusually high species concentrations and high endemism levels which are exceptionally threatened with destruction. On a global scale, 18 such areas were identified using vascular plants as a surrogate for biodiversity. Vascular plants were chosen because they are the best known of the taxa with high species numbers (having reasonable certainty that most of the species have been identified – about vs. mammals and birds combined at with only about species identified) (Myers 1988, 1990). This definition was later refined to areas with unusually high endemism (defined using vascular plants as areas containing a minimum 0.5 % (i.e. ~1 500 spp.) of the earth’s plant species (taken as spp.) as endemics) that are experiencing extremely high rates of habitat loss (Myers et al. 2000). Myers et al. (2000) revised the previous hotspots and added new hotspots. Twenty-five biodiversity hotspots were defined using the refined definition (Myers et al. 2000). These hotspots have been reviewed and nine more hotspots have been suggested (some involve changing the boundaries of existing hotspots, e.g. the Himalaya Mountain System has been separated from the Indo-Burma Hotspot), bringing the total to 34, but these new hotspots have not been peer reviewed and are still debated (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006b). Dr Myers was involved in the biodiversity hotspot website set up by Conservation International featuring all 34 hotspots (see site credits on the website by Brooks et al. (2006)). Hotspots are a form of prioritisation that is compatible with other schemes (such as ecoregions) and should not be used in isolation (Myers 1990, Myers et al. 2000). Note that Brook et al. (2006) include an assessment of amphibians and freshwater fish for each hotspot thus including the freshwater realm in the hotspots.
Additional Notes:
Extract from wikipedia ~ “Endemic, in a broad sense, can mean "belonging" or "native to", "characteristic of", or "prevalent in" a particular geography, race, field, area, or environment; native to an area or scope.
It also has two specific meanings:
endemic (ecology): an organism being "endemic" means exclusively native to a place or biota
endemic (epidemiology), an infection is said to be "endemic" in a population when that infection is maintained in the population without the need for external inputs.”
Extract from wikipedia ~ “In biology and ecology endemic means exclusively native to a place or biota, in contrast to cosmopolitan or introduced. However, it is also differentiated from indigenous: A species that is endemic is unique to a defined place or region (in other words only found in that place or region) and not naturally found anywhere else, whereas a species that is indigenous to somewhere may be native to other locations as well. Usually the term is applied to a discrete geographical unit, often an island or island group, but sometimes a country, habitat type, or other defined area or zone. For example, we can say that the Orange-breasted Sunbird Anthobaphes violacea is a Fynbos endemic (i.e. exclusively found in the Fynbos vegetation type of southwestern South Africa), or that the Socotra Sparrow Passer insularis is endemic to Socotra (only found in the Socotra island group).”

7. Hotspots (2)
Roberts et al. (2002a, b) started the process of delineating marine hotspots by analysing coral reefs using 69 lobster species, 662 snail species, 804 coral species and reef fish species (a total of species).
Endemism and risk of habitat loss (because the information on habitat loss was unavailable) were used to identify 18 centres of endemism and 10 coral reef hotspots.
This analysis is not comprehensive, even for coral reefs.
No coral reef cryptofauna were included in the study by Roberts et al. (2002a, b).
The temperate and polar systems have not been considered but are seriously threatened.
Most of the centres of endemism and coral reef hotspots adjoin terrestrial hotspots.
It would be worthwhile to expand the terrestrial conservation actions to include marine areas.
The belief that the marine environment contains less diversity than the terrestrial environment is based on the assumption that marine organisms have planktonic larvae which disperse widely. However, not all marine organisms have planktonic larval stages. The macroscopic coral reef organisms of about 5—50 mm in length produce few larvae that are relatively large and/or have shortened development periods. For these organisms, dispersal is short distance so their geographic ranges are restricted making it very probable that coral reefs have high levels of unrecorded diversity (Reaka-Kudla 1997). Roberts et al. (2002a, b) started the process of delineating marine hotspots by analysing coral reefs using 69 lobster species, 662 snail species, 804 coral species and 1 700 reef fish species (a total of species). Endemism (restricted range - ≤ to 10 cells of the equal area projection map with cells of about km2) and risk of habitat loss (because the information on habitat loss was unavailable; sites with threat scores higher than 1.67 were considered marine biodiversity hotspots) were used to identify 18 centres of endemism and 10 coral reef hotspots (Roberts et al. 2002a). The article and the supplementary material state explicitly that the temperate and polar systems have not been considered but are seriously threatened and that ongoing research shows that this analysis is not comprehensive, even for coral reefs (Roberts et al. 2002a, b). No coral reef cryptofauna were included in the analysis by Roberts et al. (2002a, b). These cryptofauna are relatively poorly studied but contain most of the diversity and biomass of the coral reef communities (Reaka-Kudla 1997). Most of the centres of endemism (14 of 18) and coral reef hotspots (8 of 10) adjoin terrestrial hotspots. It would be worthwhile to expand the terrestrial conservation actions to include marine areas (Roberts et al. 2002a). Each hotspot (terrestrial and marine) will be briefly discussed in the following slides.
Additional Notes
Threats to coral reefs include pollution by oil and other chemicals, overexploitation, sedimentation and eutrophication (caused by terrestrial habitat destruction and agricultural runoff) and environmental changes such as temperature anomalies and increased exposure to ultraviolet light. Coral reefs are also geologically linked with oil repositories (Reaka-Kudla 1997).

8. Map of the 25 Biodiversity Hotspots from 2000
This map, from Myers et al. (2000), shows the global distribution of the 25 terrestrial hotspots identified in For more information on the individual hotspots, see Wikipedia and Conservation International’s website: The latter has an interactive map showing all 34 hotspots.
Map taken from Myers et al. (2000).

9. The California Floristic Province
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. (2 124 spp. endemic),
Mammals: 157 spp. (18 spp. endemic),
Birds: 340 spp. (8 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 69 spp. (4 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 46 spp. (25 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 73 spp. (15 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by invasive alien species, logging, strip mining, oil extraction, the expansion of croplands and pastures and overpopulation.
Human density: 121 people/km2
The California Floristic Province has a Mediterranean-type climate (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006c). The province extends beyond California into Oregon, Nevada and Mexico’s Baja California (Wikipedia Contributors 2006c). It originally covered km2 (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006c) but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). The picture shows chaparral vegetation in the foreground. There are about species of vascular plants of which 2 124 are endemic. About 52 plant genera are endemic. This hotspot has 157 mammal species of which 18 are endemic. Some mammal species that were historically present have been lost from the hotspot (though not necessarily extinct elsewhere) since European settlement. Of 340 bird species, only 8 are endemic but the area is an important breeding ground for many species. For reptiles, 4 species out of 69 are endemic. Two of the endemic reptile species are restricted to Cedros Island. Of 46 amphibian species, 25 are endemic. For freshwater fish, 73 species have been recorded of which 15 are endemic. The region is estimated to have about insect species of which about are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006). This hotspot is threatened by invasive alien species, logging, strip mining, oil extraction, the expansion of croplands and pastures and human overpopulation with its accompanying urbanization, pollution, road building, increasing use of off road vehicles and suppression of natural fires (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006c). There are 121 people/km2 in the California Floristic Province (Brooks et al. 2006).

10. The Madrean Pine-Oak Woodlands
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. (3 975 spp. endemic),
Mammals: 328 spp. (6 spp. endemic),
Birds: 524 spp. (22 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 384 spp. (37 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 200 spp. (50 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 84 spp. (18 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by logging, the unsustainable use of non-timber products, agricultural expansion and increased fire frequencies resulting from the use of fire to stimulate pasture.
Human density: 32 people/km2
These woodlands occur in the mountainous areas of Mexico extending into the southwestern United States where the climate is mostly temperate (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006d). The picture shows mountains with Madrean woodland. Fir (Abies), oak (Quercus) and pine are the prominent tree species. It originally covered km2 (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006d) but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are about species of vascular plants of which are endemic. This hotspot has 328 mammal species of which only 6 are endemic. Despite the low number of endemic mammal species, there are two endemic mammal genera. Of 524 bird species, 22 are endemic. There are three endemic bird genera. For reptiles, 37 species out of 384 are endemic. A snake genus is endemic. Of 200 amphibian species, 50 are endemic. For freshwater fish, 84 species have been recorded of which 18 are endemic. This hotspot has 160—200 butterfly species of which about 45 are endemic. It is important as an overwintering site for monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) (Brooks et al. 2006). This hotspot is especially threatened by logging, which focuses on pines and to a lesser degree oaks. Other threats include the unsustainable use of non-timber products, agricultural expansion and increased fire frequencies resulting from the use of fire to stimulate pasture. There are 32 people/km2 in the Madrean pine-oak woodlands (Brooks et al. 2006).

11. Mesoamerica
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. (2 941 spp. endemic),
Mammals: 440 spp. (66 spp. endemic),
Birds: spp. (208 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 692 spp. (240 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 555 spp. (358 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 509 spp. (340 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by oil extraction, mineral extraction, timber extraction, road building which allows access to undisturbed areas, overpopulation and poverty which result in forest clearing for crops and pastures.
Human density: 72 people/km2
This tropical and subtropical hotspot covers most of the area culturally designated as Mesoamerica and some islands (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006e). It originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). Forests are the dominant vegetation type in this hotspot. There are about species of vascular plants of which are endemic. About 65 of plant genera are endemic. Of these 65, 50 have only a single species. Each of the 3 endemic plant families has only one species. This hotspot has 440 mammal species of which 66 are endemic. There are three endemic mammal genera, each with a single species. Some of the endemic mammal species are restricted to offshore islands. Of 1 113 bird species, 208 are endemic. The picture shows the endemic quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno) – the national emblem of Guatemala (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 20 endemic bird genera. The hotspot is also important as resting points and winter habitat for about 225 migratory bird species. For reptiles, 240 species out of 692 are endemic. This is the hotspot with the highest reptile diversity. There are many endemic reptile genera and one turtle family (Dermatemydidae) is endemic. The beaches are important nesting sites for marine turtles. Of 555 amphibian species, 358 are endemic. At least 11 of the 52 amphibian genera are endemic. More than 230 of the amphibian species are threatened with extinction. For freshwater fish, 509 species have been recorded of which 340 are endemic. There are 25 endemic freshwater fish genera (Brooks et al. 2006). This hotspot is threatened by oil extraction, mineral extraction, timber extraction, road building which allows access to undisturbed areas, human overpopulation and poverty which result in forest clearing for crops and pastures (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 72 people/km2 in Mesoamerica (Brooks et al. 2006).

12. The Western Caribbean Marine Hotspot
This marine hotspot stretches from Yucatan (Mexico) south to Colombia and is thus adjacent to the terrestrial Mesoamerica and Caribbean Hotspots.
The coral reefs cover about km2.
Of the species studied, this marine hotspot has:
430 widespread species,
20 endemic species occur.
The threat score is 1.91.
The threats include global warming and disease.
This marine hotspot stretches from Yucatan (Mexico) south to Colombia and is thus adjacent to the terrestrial Mesoamerica and Caribbean Hotspots (Brooks et al. 2006, Roberts et al. 2002a, b). The coral reefs cover about km2. Of the 3 235 species studied, this marine hotspot has 430 widespread species and 20 endemic species. The threat score is 1.91 (Roberts et al. 2002a). The threats include global warming and disease (Center for Applied Biodiversity Science).

13. The Caribbean
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. (6 550 spp. endemic),
Mammals: 89 spp. (41 spp. endemic),
Birds: 604 spp. (163 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 502 spp. (469 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 170 spp. (170 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 161 spp. (65 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is especially threatened by alien invasive species. Other threats include agricultural expansion, mining, charcoal production and tourism.
Human density: 155 people/km2
This hotspot is composed of islands spread over more than 4 million km2 of ocean (Brooks et al. 2006). It contains widely different ecosystems (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006f). It originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are about species of vascular plants of which are endemic. There are 205 endemic plant genera and one family (Goetziaceae) is endemic. This hotspot has 89 mammal species of which 41 are endemic. There are 15 endemic mammal genera. Two rodent families are endemic. Of 604 bird species, 163 are endemic. Of the endemic bird species, 48 are threatened with extinction. There are 36 endemic bird genera and two endemic bird families. The picture shows a female bee hummingbird (Mellisuga helenae). For reptiles, 469 species out of 502 are endemic. All 170 amphibian species are endemic. Most are endemic to single islands. For freshwater fish, 161 species have been recorded of which 65 are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006). This hotspot is especially threatened by invasive alien species. Other threats include agricultural expansion (causing deforestation); mining of bauxite, sand and gravel; charcoal production and tourism (which involves road building, landscaping with alien species, golf courses and general tourist infrastructure and facilities) (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 155 people/km2 in the Caribbean (Brooks et al. 2006).

14. The Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. (2 750 spp. endemic),
Mammals: 285 spp. (11 spp. endemic),
Birds: 890 spp. (110 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 327 spp. (98 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 203 spp. (30 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 251 spp. (115 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by timber and firewood extraction, aquaculture, agriculture and infrastructure, hunting, plantations, mining, proposed road construction and development and invasive alien species. Human population growth adds to the pressure.
Human density: 51 people/km2
This hotspot is tropical and includes the Galapagos Islands (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006g). Three countries (Colombia, Ecuador and Panama) have portions of this hotspot. The hotspot borders Mesoamerica in the north and the Tropical Andes in the east. A wide range of habitats is to be found within this hotspot. It originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are about species of vascular plants of which 2 750 are endemic. This hotspot has 285 mammal species of which 11 are endemic. Of 890 bird species, 110 are endemic. There are 14 endemic bird genera of which 10 have only one species. For reptiles, 98 species out of 327 are endemic. The region has 5 endemic reptile genera. The picture shows a marine iguana (Amblyrhynchus cristatus). Of 203 described amphibian species, 30 are endemic. New amphibian species are still being discovered. For freshwater fish, 251 species have been recorded of which 115 are endemic. There are seven endemic freshwater fish genera (Brooks et al. 2006). The threats to this hotspot depend on the country/region involved. In Ecuador, timber and firewood extraction, aquaculture, agriculture and infrastructure, hunting and plantations of exotic species threaten the hotspot. Human population growth adds to the pressure. For amphibians, climate change and ultra-violet radiation are important. In Panama, the biggest threats are mining and proposed road construction while proposed development threatens Colombia. The Galapagos Islands are threatened by invasive alien species (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 51 people/km2 in the Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena (Brooks et al. 2006).

15. The Tropical Andes
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. ( spp. endemic),
Mammals: 570 spp. (75 spp. endemic),
Birds: spp. (579 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 610 spp. (275 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 981 spp. (673 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 380 spp. (131 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by invasive alien species, poverty, human population growth, seasonal burning, pastures, croplands, mining, firewood extraction, road and dam construction, deforestation, oil exploration and development and mining.
Human density: 37 people/km2
This tropical hotspot is the richest of all the hotspots. It originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are at least 30 000 species of vascular plants of which at least 15 000 are endemic. More species are still being discovered. There are about 330 endemic plant genera and one endemic family, Columelliaceae. This hotspot has 570 mammal species of which 75 are endemic. Nearly 70 of the endemic mammal species are threatened. There are six endemic genera, all containing only one species. The picture shows a yellow-tailed woolly monkey (Oreonax flavicauda). Of bird species, 579 are endemic – the highest level of bird endemism in the world. There are 66 endemic bird genera. For reptiles, 275 species out of 610 are endemic. There are three endemic reptile genera – a world record number for reptiles. Of 981 amphibian species, 673 are endemic. There are 8 endemic amphibian genera. This is the most diverse hotspot in terms of amphibian diversity making it also the most important globally for amphibians. For freshwater fish, 380 species have been recorded of which 131 are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006). Different altitudes have different threats though invasive alien species, poverty and human population growth are general threats. The high altitudes are threatened by seasonal burning, pastures, croplands, mining and firewood extraction. The growth of the opium poppy and the guerillas associated with the opium trade make sustaining conservation activities difficult. The cloud forests are threatened by road and dam construction, deforestation and agriculture. In the lowlands, oil exploration and development and the mining of bauxite, diamonds, gold and iron threaten the environment, as do the roads that accompany such industrial development (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 37 people/km2 in the Tropical Andes (Brooks et al. 2006).

16. The Chilean Winter Rainfall–Valdivian Forests
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. (1 957 spp. endemic),
Mammals: 68 spp. (15 spp. endemic),
Birds: 226 spp. (12 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 41 spp. (27 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 41 spp. (29 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 43 spp. (24 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by invasive alien species, overgrazing, deforestation, the illegal wildlife trade, fire and human population growth causing urbanization (including facilities for tourism, road building and hydroelectric complexes).
Human density: 37 people/km2
This hotspot contains both a Mediterranean climate and winter rainfall deserts (Brooks et al. 2006). The hotspot extends from Chile into western Argentina and also includes the Juan Fernández Islands and the islands of San Félix and San Ambrosio (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006h). It originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are about species of vascular plants of which are endemic. There are three endemic plant families and a number of endemic plant genera. This hotspot has 68 mammal species of which 15 are endemic. There are five endemic mammal genera, only one of which has more than one species (the exception has three species). One of the endemic genera (Dromiciops) is the only representative of both its family (Microbiotheriidae) and its order (Microbiotheria). Only this hotspot has an endemic mammal order. Of 226 bird species, 12 are endemic. Though the bird diversity is not great, there are two endemic bird genera. For reptiles, 27 species out of 41 are endemic. No turtles occur in this hotspot. Of 41 amphibian species, 29 are endemic. There is one endemic amphibian family and five genera are endemic to this hotspot, three of which only have one species. The picture shows Darwin’s frog (Rhinoderma darwini). For freshwater fish, 43 species have been recorded of which 24 are endemic. This hotspot has two endemic freshwater fish families (Brooks et al. 2006). This hotspot is threatened by invasive alien species, overgrazing – especially the matorral, deforestation to make way for plantations of exotic species, the illegal wildlife trade, fire (unlike the other Mediterranean-type regions, the vegetation is not adapted to fire) and human population growth causing urbanization (including facilities for tourism, road building and hydroelectric complexes) (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 37 people/km2 in the Chilean Winter Rainfall–Valdivian Forests (Brooks et al. 2006).

17. The Atlantic Forest
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. (8 000 spp. endemic),
Mammals: 264 spp. (72 spp. endemic),
Birds: 934 spp. (144 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 311 spp. (94 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 456 spp. (282 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 350 spp. (133 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by industrial forestry (logging and plantations), crops and pastures partially caused by poverty, urbanization caused by human population growth, pollution from heavy industry and charcoal and firewood extraction.
Human density: 87 people/km2
Known in Portugese as the Mata Atlântica, this tropical forest hotspot is unusual because it originally extended as far as 24oS. The Atlantic Forest still extends into Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006i). This hotspot also includes some islands off the Brazilian coast and the Fernando de Noronha archipelago. It originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are about species of vascular plants of which are endemic. This hotspot has 264 mammal species of which 72 are endemic. There are 12 endemic mammal genera. The picture shows a golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia). Of 934 bird species, 144 are endemic with 23 endemic genera. One species (the Alagoas curassow, Crax mitu) is extinct in the wild and survives only in captivity in Rio de Janeiro. For reptiles, 94 species out of 311 are endemic. There are eight endemic reptile genera. Five marine turtles nest in this hotspot. Of 456 amphibian species, 282 are endemic, with 15 genera and one family endemic as well. For freshwater fish, 350 species have been recorded of which 133 are endemic. There are 10 endemic freshwater fish genera (Brooks et al. 2006). The threats to this hotspot depend on the country/region involved. In Brazil, the threats include industrial forestry in the heart of the region with logging and plantations of exotic species, crops and pastures, urbanization caused by human population growth, pollution from heavy industry and charcoal and firewood extraction. In Argentina, the expansion and intensification of agriculture, logging for plantation forestry and subsistence agriculture caused by poverty are the major threats to the natural environment. In Paraguay the forest is being clear-cut for agriculture and settlements (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 87 people/km2 in the Atlantic Forest (Brooks et al. 2006).

18. Cerrado
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. ( spp. endemic),
Mammals: 195 spp. (14 spp. endemic),
Birds: 607 spp. (17 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 225 spp. (33 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 186 spp. (28 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 800 spp. (200 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by human population growth, cropland and pasture expansion, the development of infrastructure (e.g. roads, railways and hydropower plants) and charcoal production.
Human density: 13 people/km2
Though tropical, this hotspot has a distinct dry season from May to September. It is Brazil’s second biggest biome (Brooks et al. 2006). Originally, it covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). The picture shows the savannah vegetation of the Cerrado. There are about species of vascular plants of which are endemic. This hotspot has 195 mammal species of which 14 are endemic. There are three endemic mammal genera. Of 607 bird species, 17 are endemic. For reptiles, 33 species out of 225 are endemic. Of 186 amphibian species, 28 are endemic. For freshwater fish, 800 species have been recorded of which 200 are endemic. There are nearly 20 endemic freshwater fish genera. From preliminary data the area is estimated to have about species of Lepidoptera, nearly 146 termite species, about 138 sociable wasp species and more than 800 bee species (Brooks et al. 2006). This hotspot is threatened by human population growth, the expansion of croplands and pastures, the development of infrastructure (e.g. roads, railways and hydropower plants) and charcoal production (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 13 people/km2 in the Brazilian Cerrado (Brooks et al. 2006).

19. Succulent Karoo
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. (2 439 spp. endemic),
Mammals: 75 spp. (2 spp. endemic),
Birds: 226 spp. (1 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 94 spp. (15 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 21 spp. (1 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 26 spp. (0 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by illegal species collection, mining, overgrazing and both dryland and irrigated agriculture and the infrastructure (e.g. dams) needed for irrigation.
Human density: 4 people/km2
This is one of two entirely arid hotspots. The region, extending from South Africa into Namibia, is usually split by rainfall patterns into two parts: Namaqualand (mainly winter rainfall) and the southern Karoo (bimodal spring and autumn rainfall) (Brooks et al. 2006). It originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are about species of vascular plants of which 2 439 are endemic. The picture shows a half-mens (Pachypodium namaquanum). This hotspot has 80 endemic plant genera. This hotspot has 75 mammal species of which only 2 are endemic. The large mammal species whose distributions used to include the gallery forests of the Orange River are not longer found in this hotspot. Of 226 bird species, only 1 is endemic. For reptiles, 15 species out of 94 are endemic. Of 21 amphibian species, only 1 is endemic. For freshwater fish, 26 species have been recorded, none of which are endemic. Invertebrate endemism is estimated to be more than half the number of species. Twenty-eight plant species are adapted for fly pollination (Brooks et al. 2006). This hotspot is threatened by illegal species collection, mining of diamonds and heavy minerals, overgrazing and both dryland and irrigated agriculture and the infrastructure (e.g. dams) needed for irrigation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 4 people/km2 in the Succulent Karoo (Brooks et al. 2006).

20. Cape Floristic Province
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. ( spp. endemic),
Mammals: 91 spp. (4 spp. endemic),
Birds: 323 spp. (6 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 100 spp. (22 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 46 spp. (16 spp. Endemic),
Freshwater fish: 34 spp. (14 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by invasive alien species, urbanization and agriculture.
Human density: 51 people/km2
One of the five hotspots with a Mediterranean-type climate, this hotspot unique to South Africa (Brooks et al. 2006). Some classifications class this hotspot as a floral kingdom (Goldblatt & Manning 2000, Brooks et al. 2006). It originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are about 9 000 species of vascular plants of which about 6 210 are endemic. There are 160 endemic plant genera and five endemic families (Goldblatt & Manning 2000, Brooks et al. 2006). The picture shows the endemic Roridula gorgonias, a representative of the endemic family Roridulaceae. This hotspot has 91 mammal species of which 4 are endemic. Most of the large mammal species that were historically present no longer occur in this hotspot. Of 323 bird species, only 6 are endemic. For reptiles, 22 species out of 100 are endemic. Of 46 amphibian species, 16 are endemic. The two endemic amphibian genera are both only represented by one species. For freshwater fish, 34 species have been recorded of which 14 are endemic. The limited existing data suggests that invertebrate endemism is high. About 69 of the 230 species of butterflies are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006). This hotspot is most threatened by invasive alien species. Urbanization and agriculture are also serious threats (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 51 people/km2 in the Cape Floristic Region (Brooks et al. 2006).

21. Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. (1 900 spp. endemic),
Mammals: 194 spp. (4 spp. endemic),
Birds: 541 spp. (0 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 209 spp. (30 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 72 spp. (11 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 73 spp. (20 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by croplands and pastures, plantation forestry using exotic species, urbanization, invasive alien species, localized titanium mining and charcoal production .
Human density: 70 people/km2
This hotspot features unusually species rich temperate forests. The hotspot is shared by South Africa, Swaziland and Mozambique. It originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are about species of vascular plants of which are endemic. The picture shows a bird-of-paradise flower (Strelitzia reginae). The hotspot has 39 endemic plant genera and a single endemic plant family (Rhynchocalycaceae) that has only one species representing it. This hotspot has 194 mammal species of which 4 are endemic. None of the 541 bird species are endemic. For reptiles, 30 species out of 209 are endemic. There is one endemic reptile genus. Of 72 amphibian species, 11 are endemic. All the amphibian species are frogs. For freshwater fish, 73 species have been recorded of which 20 are endemic. The region is rich in invertebrate fauna (Brooks et al. 2006). The major threats to this hotspot are croplands and pastures, plantation forestry using exotic species, urbanization. Other threats include invasive alien species, localized titanium mining and charcoal production (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 70 people/km2 in the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).

22. The Eastern South Africa Marine Hotspot
This marine hotspot stretches from Natal to East London and is thus nearest to the terrestrial Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot.
The coral reefs cover about 178 km2.
Of the species studied, this marine hotspot has:
542 widespread species,
30 endemic species occur.
The threat score is 2.36.
The threats include fishing, pollution from on land and tourism.
This marine hotspot stretches from Natal to East London and is thus nearest to the terrestrial Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006, Roberts et al. 2002b). The coral reefs cover about 178 km2. Of the 3 235 species studied, this marine hotspot has 542 widespread species and 30 endemic species. The threat score is 2.36 (Roberts et al. 2002a). The threats include fishing, pollution from on land and tourism (Center for Applied Biodiversity Science).

23. The Southern Mascarene Islands Marine Hotspot
This marine hotspot includes the islands of La Réunion, Mauritius and Rodriguez (but not Madagascar) and is thus adjacent to the terrestrial Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands Hotspot.
The coral reefs cover about 205 km2.
Of the species studied, this marine hotspot has:
746 widespread species,
16 endemic species occur.
The threat score is 2.45.
The threats include coastal development, overfishing, pollution from agriculture esp. sugar cane and a growing human population.
This marine hotspot includes the islands of La Reunion, Mauritius and Rodriguez (but not Madagascar) and is thus adjacent to the terrestrial Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands Hotspot (Roberts et al. 2002a, b). The coral reefs cover about 205 km2. Of the 3 235 species studied, this marine hotspot has 746 widespread species and 16 endemic species. The threat score is 2.45 (Roberts et al. 2002a). The threats include coastal development, overfishing, pollution from agriculture esp. sugar cane and a growing human population (Center for Applied Biodiversity Science).

24. Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. ( spp. endemic),
Mammals: 155 spp. (144 spp. endemic),
Birds: 310 spp. (181 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 384 spp. (367 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 230 spp. (229 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 164 spp. (97 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by human population growth (Mauritius has about 538 people/km2 ), crops and pastures, timber extraction and plantations, hunting and invasive alien species.
Human density: 32 people/km2
Also known as the Madagascar Region, this hotspot is the result of evolution in isolation (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006j). It originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are about species of vascular plants of which 11 600 are endemic. There are at least 310 endemic plant genera. Eight endemic plant families are found in this hotspot, the most in any hotspot! This hotspot has 155 mammal species of which 144 are endemic. Six mammal families are endemic to Madagascar. Five of these families represent the lemurs, making this the hotspot with the highest primate endemism in the world. The picture shows Madame Berthe's mouse lemur (Microcebus berthae). Of 310 bird species, 181 are endemic. There are 42 endemic bird genera and four endemic bird families. For reptiles, 367 species out of 384 are endemic. There is one endemic reptile family in this hotspot. Of 230 amphibian species, only one is not an endemic. Two amphibian families are endemic to this hotspot. For freshwater fish, 164 species have been recorded of which 97 are endemic. There are 14 endemic freshwater fish species and two endemic freshwater fish families. While the invertebrate fauna is poorly known, the endemism for the recorded species is above 80% (Brooks et al. 2006). This hotspot is threatened by human population growth (Mauritius has about 538 people/km2 ), crops and pastures, timber extraction and plantations, hunting and invasive alien species (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 32 people/km2 in Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands (Brooks et al. 2006).

25. The Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. (1 750 spp. endemic),
Mammals: 198 spp. (11 spp. endemic),
Birds: 633 spp. (11 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 254 spp. (53 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 88 spp. (6 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 219 spp. (32 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by agriculture, urbanization, charcoal production, firewood collection, timber extraction (especially near tourist areas), the uncontrolled use of fire and mining.
Human density: 52 people/km2
This tropical/subtropical hotspot includes the islands of Mafia, Pemba, Zanzibar and the Bazarruto Archipelago. It originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are about species of vascular plants of which are endemic. At least 28 plant genera are endemic. This hotspot has 198 mammal species of which 11 are endemic. The picture shows a Golden-rumped elephant shrew (Rhynchocyon chrysopygus). Of 633 bird species, only 11 are endemic. For reptiles, 53 species out of 254 are endemic. There is one reptile genus, Scolecoseps, that is endemic. Of 88 amphibian species, 6 are endemic. For freshwater fish, 219 species have been recorded of which 32 are endemic. The region has high endemism for millipedes (about 80%) and mollusks (about 68%) (Brooks et al. 2006). This hotspot is threatened by agriculture, urbanization, charcoal production, firewood collection, timber extraction (especially near tourist areas), the uncontrolled use of fire and mining (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 52 people/km2 in the Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa (Brooks et al. 2006).

26. Horn of Africa
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. (2 750 spp. endemic),
Mammals: 220 spp. (20 spp. endemic),
Birds: 697 spp. (24 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 285 spp. (93 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 30 spp. (6 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 100 spp. (10 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by overgrazing, uncontrolled hunting, shifting agriculture, charcoal production and the development of infrastructure.
Human density: 23 people/km2
This is the second arid hotspot. The Socotra Archipelago and the islands in the Red Sea are included in this hotspot. It originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are about species of vascular plants of which 2 750 are endemic. There are 13 plant genera endemic to the Socotra Archipelago and two endemic plant families (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006k). The lower picture shows vegetation in Eritrea. This hotspot has 220 mammal species of which 20 are endemic. There are five endemic mammal genera in the region. Of 697 bird species, 24 are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006). For reptiles, 93 species out of 285 are endemic. This is the highest proportion of reptile endemism in Africa (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006k). The upper picture shows an endemic snake species (Ditypophis vivax). Of 30 amphibian species, 6 are endemic. Only one amphibian genus is endemic (Brooks et al. 2006). For freshwater fish, 100 species have been recorded of which 10 are endemic. The endemic species include three cave dwellers, each the sole representative of its genus (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006k). This hotspot is threatened by overgrazing and uncontrolled hunting. Political instability complicates conservation activities in the region. In Somalia, shifting agriculture and charcoal production are threats to the natural environment. Agricultural development of the Rift Valley and riparian zones is a threat in Somalia and Ethiopia. The development of infrastructure is a threat on Socotra (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006k). There are 23 people/km2 in the Horn of Africa (Brooks et al. 2006).

27. The Red Sea Marine Hotspot
This marine hotspot covers the Red Sea. This includes the Gulfs of Aqaba and Suez and the inner part of Gulf of Aden and is thus adjacent to the terrestrial Horn of Africa Hotspot.
The coral reefs cover about km2.
Of the species studied, this marine hotspot has:
661 widespread species,
18 endemic species occur.
The threat score is 1.77.
The threats include coastal development, industrial deve- lopment and tourism in the adjacent countries.
This marine hotspot covers the Red Sea. This includes the Gulfs of Aqaba and Suez and the inner part of Gulf of Aden and is thus adjacent to the terrestrial Horn of Africa Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006, Roberts et al. 2002b). The coral reefs cover about 16 194 km2. Of the 3 235 species studied, this marine hotspot has 661 widespread species and 18 endemic species. The threat score is 1.77 (Roberts et al. 2002a). The threats include coastal development, industrial development and tourism in the adjacent countries (Center for Applied Biodiversity Science). The picture shows masked butterfly fish (Chaetodon semilarvatus).

28. Eastern Afromontane
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. (2 356 spp. endemic),
Mammals: 490 spp. (104 spp. endemic),
Birds: spp. (106 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 347 spp. (93 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 229 spp. (68 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 893 spp. (617 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by human population growth, crops, pastures, plantations, logging, the overexploitation of non-timber forest products, fire, mining, firewood collection, charcoal production, medicinal plant collection, hunting and disease.
Human density: 95 people/km2
The term “afromontane” refers to the African mountains and the mountains of the southern Arabian Peninsula (Wikipedia Contributors 2006l). This hotspot covers biogeographically similar mountain ranges that are widely scattered. It originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are about 7 598 species of vascular plants of which 2 356 are endemic. There are at least 43 endemic plant genera. This hotspot has 490 mammal species of which 104 are endemic. There are at least 7 endemic mammal genera. This hotspot is important for primate conservation. Of bird species, 106 are endemic. There are at least 7 endemic bird genera. For reptiles, 93 species out of 347 are endemic. Of 229 amphibian species, 68 are endemic. There are at least 11 endemic amphibian genera. For freshwater fish, 893 species have been recorded of which 617 are endemic. The hotspot includes the Great Rift Lakes and is therefore critically important for freshwater fish conservation. (Brooks et al. 2006). The picture shows Lamprologus multifasciatus, a cichlid endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Human population growth is a major threat to the region’s biota. This hotspot is also threatened by crops, pastures, plantations, logging, the overexploitation of non-timber forest products, commercial estates, fire, mining, infrastructure development, firewood collection, charcoal production, medicinal plant collection, hunting, poaching and disease. Many trained conservationists have been killed in the region (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 95 people/km2 in the Eastern Afromontane Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).

29. The Gulf of Guinea Marine Hotspot
This marine hotspot includes the Islands of Bioko, São Tomé, Principe and Annobon and is thus adjacent to the terrestrial West African Forests Hotspot.
The area covered by coral reefs is not available.
Of the species studied, this marine hotspot has:
33 widespread species,
45 endemic species occur.
The threat score is 2.61.
The threats include coastal deve- lopment, overfishing, sedimenta- tion from logging, and a potential coral harvesting business.
This marine hotspot includes the Islands of Bioko, São Tomé, Principe and Annobon and is thus adjacent to the terrestrial West African Forests Hotspot (Roberts et al. 2002a, b). The area covered by coral reefs is not available. Of the 3 235 species studied, this marine hotspot has 33 widespread species and 45 endemic species. The threat score is 2.61 (Roberts et al. 2002a). The threats include coastal development, overfishing, sedimentation from logging, and a potential coral harvesting business (Center for Applied Biodiversity Science).

30. West African Forests
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. (1 800 spp. endemic),
Mammals: 320 spp. (67 spp. endemic),
Birds: 785 spp. (75 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 210 spp. (52 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 221 spp. (85 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 512 spp. (143 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by political instability, poverty, human population growth, logging, agriculture, hunting, mining and infrastructure development (particularly roads).
Human density: 137 people/km2
Alternately called the Guinean Forests of West Africa, this lowland forest hotspot includes four islands: Annobon, Bioko, Príncipe and São Tomé. It originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are about species of vascular plants of which are endemic. The islands of Príncipe and São Tomé each have an endemic plant genus. This hotspot has 320 mammal species of which 67 are endemic. There are seven endmic mammal genera. The region is important for primate conservation as it has 18 endemic primate species. Of 785 bird species, 75 are endemic. There are seven endemic bird genera. For reptiles, 52 species out of 210 are endemic. More work needs to be done on the reptiles and amphibians of this hotspot. Of 221 amphibian species, 85 are endemic. The picture shows the endemic Mount Nimba toad (Nimbaphrynoides occidentalis) which has a nine month gestation period before fully developed ‘toadlets’ are born. For freshwater fish, 512 species have been recorded of which 143 are endemic. The region has five endemic cichlid genera (Brooks et al. 2006). This hotspot is badly fragmented. Political instability, poverty and human population growth are the major threats to this hotspot. Direct threats include logging, agriculture, hunting, mining and infrastructure development (particularly roads) (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 137 people/km2 in the Western African Forests (Brooks et al. 2006).

31. The Cape Verde Islands Marine Hotspot
This marine hotspot is restricted to the Cape Verde Islands and is thus adjacent to the terrestrial Mediterranean Hotspot.
The area covered by coral reefs is not available.
Of the species studied, this marine hotspot has:
25 widespread species,
26 endemic species occur.
The threat score is 2.20.
The threats include coastal development, overfishing and pollution from the land.
This marine hotspot is restricted to the Cape Verde Islands and is thus adjacent to the terrestrial Mediterranean Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006, Roberts et al. 2002b). The area covered by coral reefs is not available. Of the 3 235 species studied, this marine hotspot has 25 widespread species and 26 endemic species. The threat score is 2.20 (Roberts et al. 2002a). The threats include coastal development, overfishing and pollution from the land (Center for Applied Biodiversity Science).

32. Mediterranean Basin
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. ( spp. endemic),
Mammals: 226 spp. (25 spp. endemic),
Birds: 489 spp. (25 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 230 spp. (77 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 79 spp. (27 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 216 spp. (63 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by overgrazing, urban expansion, tourism (including infrastructure development), human population growth and agricultural intensification, water shortages and desertification.
Human density: 111 people/km2
Myers (1990) originally considered this region too large to be a hotspot but changed his mind with the next revision (Myers et al. 2000). This is the largest of the five hotspots with a Mediterranean-type climate. It includes the islands in the Mediterranean Sea and the Azores, Cape Verde, the Macaronesian Islands of the Canaries, Madeira and the Selvages (Brooks et al. 2006). It originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006m). There are about species of vascular plants of which are endemic. There are two endemic plant families. This hotspot has 226 mammal species of which 25 are endemic. Of 489 bird species, 25 are endemic. The region is also important as part of the migration routes of many bird species. For reptiles, 77 species out of 230 are endemic. Four reptile genera are endemic to this hotspot. The picture shows an endemic lizard (Algyroides nigropunctatus) – a member of one of the endemic genera. Of 79 amphibian species, 27 are endemic. For freshwater fish, 216 species have been recorded of which 63 are endemic. Six freshwater fish genera and one freshwater fish family are endemic to this hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006). This hotspot is badly fragmented. This hotspot is presently threatened by overgrazing, urban expansion and tourism (including infrastructure development). Northern Africa is also threatened by human population growth and agricultural intensification – both of which are causing water shortages and desertification (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 111 people/km2 in the Mediterranean Basin (Brooks et al. 2006).

33. Caucasus
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. (1 600 spp. endemic),
Mammals: 131 spp. (18 spp. endemic),
Birds: 378 spp. (1 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 86 spp. (20 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 17 spp. (3 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 127 spp. (12 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by illegal timber cutting for fuel, overgrazing and poaching.
Human density: 68 people/km2
Also known as Caucasia this hotspot lies between the Black and Caspian Seas (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006n). It originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are about species of vascular plants of which are endemic. The picture shows the endemic Rhododendron caucasicum. This hotspot has 17 endemic plant genera. This hotspot has 131 mammal species of which 18 are endemic. Of 378 bird species, only 1 is endemic. The region is important as a corridor for migratory birds. For reptiles, 20 species out of 86 are endemic. Of 17 amphibian species, 3 are endemic. For freshwater fish, 127 species have been recorded of which 12 are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006). This hotspot is threatened by illegal timber cutting for fuel, overgrazing and poaching (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 68 people/km2 in the Caucasus (Brooks et al. 2006).

34. Irano-Anatolian
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. (2 500 spp. endemic),
Mammals: 142 spp. (10 spp. endemic),
Birds: 362 spp. (0 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 116 spp. (12 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 18 spp. (2 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 90 spp. (30 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by agricultural development (particularly irrigation and its associated dams), overgrazing, excessive firewood collection, mining, military operations and human population growth.
Human density: 58 people/km2
The topography of this hotspot forms a natural barrier between the Mediterranean Basin and the plateaus of Western Asia. It originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are about species of vascular plants of which 2 500 are endemic. This hotspot has 142 mammal species of which 10 are endemic. None of the 362 bird species are endemic but the area is an important breeding ground for many species. For reptiles, 12 species out of 116 are endemic. Of 18 amphibian species, 2 are endemic. The picture shows the endemic salamander (Neurergus microspilotus). For freshwater fish, 90 species have been recorded of which 30 are endemic. The region has at least 350 butterfly species of which almost 20 are endemic. More than 40 species of scorpion have been described (Brooks et al. 2006). This hotspot is threatened by agricultural development (particularly irrigation and its associated dams), overgrazing, excessive firewood collection, mining, military operations and human population growth (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 58 people/km2 in the Irano-Anatolian Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).

35. The Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. (3 049 spp. endemic),
Mammals: 140 spp. (18 spp. endemic),
Birds: 458 spp. (35 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 267 spp. (174 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 178 spp. (130 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 191 spp. (139 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by human population pressure, logging, plantations, agriculture, infrastructure development, overgrazing, hunting, firewood, non-timber forest product extraction, forest fires, unregulated tourism, poaching and invasive alien species.
Human density: 261 people/km2
The Western Ghats portion of this hotspot consists of the mountain range that parallels India’s western coast and the adjacent coastal plains. A continental island, Sri Lanka is separated from India by the Palk Strait. It originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are about species of vascular plants of which 3 049 are endemic. More than 80 plant genera are endemic. This hotspot has 140 mammal species of which 18 are endemic. There are four endemic mammal genera. Of 458 bird species, 35 are endemic. The picture shows the endemic rufous-breasted laughingthrush (Garrulax cachinnans). For reptiles, 174 species out of 267 are endemic. Approximately a quarter of the reptile genera are endemic to this hotspot. Of 178 amphibian species, 130 are endemic. There are six endemic amphibian genera and an endemic anuran family (Nasikabatrachidae) that is represented by a single species. For freshwater fish, 191 species have been recorded of which 139 are endemic. Nine freshwater fish genera are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006). Human population pressure on the natural environment including all protected areas is the ultimate problem in this hotspot. For the Western Ghats, logging, plantations, agriculture, infrastructure development, overgrazing, hunting, firewood, non-timber forest product extraction, forest fires and unregulated tourism are the main threats. For Sri Lanka, agriculture (including unrestricted agrochemical use), urbanization, forest product extraction, poaching and invasive alien species are the worst threats (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 261 people/km2 in the Western Ghats and Sri Lanka Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).

36. The Northern Indian Ocean Marine Hotspot
This marine hotspot includes Lakshadweep, the Maldives, southern India and Sri Lanka and is thus adjacent to the terrestrial Western Ghats and Sri Lanka Hotspot.
The coral reefs cover about km2.
Of the species studied, this marine hotspot has:
1 053 widespread species,
31 endemic species occur.
The threat score is 2.22.
The threats include over- fishing, the live fish trade, coral mining and global warming.
This marine hotspot includes Lakshadweep, the Maldives, southern India and Sri Lanka and is thus adjacent to the terrestrial Western Ghats and Sri Lanka Hotspot (Roberts et al. 2002a, b). The coral reefs cover about km2. Of the 3 235 species studied, this marine hotspot has 1 053 widespread species and 31 endemic species. The threat score is 2.22 (Roberts et al. 2002a). The threats include overfishing, the live fish trade, coral mining and global warming (Center for Applied Biodiversity Science).

37. The Mountains of Central Asia
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. (1 500 spp. endemic),
Mammals: 143 spp. (6 spp. endemic),
Birds: 489 spp. (0 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 59 spp. (1 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 7 spp. (4 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 27 spp. (5 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by human population growth, overgra-zing, poaching, unregulated plant collection, firewood extraction, agriculture, fires, settlement expansion, infrastructure development, mining, war, minefields, dams, irrigation and global warming.
Human density: 42 people/km2
This hotspot comprises the Pamir and Tien Shan mountain ranges. It originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are about species of vascular plants of which are endemic. Sixty-four plant genera are endemic. This hotspot has 143 mammal species of which 6 are endemic. The picture shows the endemic ili pika (Ochotona iliensis). None of the 489 bird species are endemic but the region is an important breeding ground for raptors. For reptiles, only 1 species out of 59 is endemic. Of 7 amphibian species, 4 are endemic. For freshwater fish, 27 species have been recorded of which 5 are endemic. Of 26 recorded species of Apollo butterflies, 11 are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006). This hotspot is threatened by human population growth, overgrazing, poaching, unregulated plant collection, firewood extraction, agriculture, forest fires, settlement expansion, infrastructure development (e.g. roads and recreational facilities), mining, war, minefields, dams, irrigation systems and global warming (the glaciers are melting) (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 42 people/km2 in the mountains of central Asia (Brooks et al. 2006).

38. The Himalaya
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. (3 160 spp. endemic),
Mammals: 300 spp. (12 spp. endemic),
Birds: 977 spp. (115 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 176 spp. (48 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 105 spp. (42 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 269 spp. (33 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by human population growth, logging, crops, pastures, fire, settlements, overgrazing, overexploitation of medicinal plants, firewood collection, non-timber product extraction, tourism, political unrest and poaching.
Human density: 123 people/km2
This hotspot is a massive mountain system with a variety of habitats (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006o). It originally covered km2 but only about 185 427 km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are about species of vascular plants of which 3 160 are endemic. There are 71 endemic plant genera and five endemic plant families. The species Ermania himalayensis has been found at an altitude of metres above sea level. This hotspot has 300 mammal species of which 12 are endemic. The picture shows a male Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus). There is an endemic flying squirrel genus. Of 977 bird species, 115 are endemic. For reptiles, 48 species out of 176 are endemic. There is an endemic lizard genus. Of 105 amphibian species, 42 are endemic. For freshwater fish, 269 species have been recorded of which 33 are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006). This hotspot is threatened by human population growth, logging, crops, pastures, fire (used to clear the land), settlements, overgrazing, overexploitation of medicinal plants, firewood collection, non-timber product extraction, tourism, political unrest and poaching (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 123 people/km2 in the Himalaya Mountain System (Brooks et al. 2006).

39. The Mountains of Southwest China
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. (3 500 spp. endemic),
Mammals: 237 spp. (5 spp. endemic),
Birds: 611 spp. (2 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 92 spp. (15 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 90 spp. (8 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 92 spp. (23 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by high population growth, logging, firewood collection, building construction, pastures, overgrazing, dam building, mining, road building, uncontrolled tourism development, collection of traditional medication and illegal hunting.
Human density: 32 people/km2
This hotspot lies east of the Himalaya Hotspot. Its mountains have a north-south orientation that is perpendicular to the orientation of the principal Himalayan mountain chain. It originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are about species of vascular plants of which are endemic. At least 20 plant genera and two plant families are endemic to these mountains. This hotspot has 237 mammal species of which 5 are endemic. Of 611 bird species, only about 2 are endemic. The picture shows a Sichuan partridge (Arborophila rufipectus). For reptiles, 15 species out of 92 are endemic. Of 90 amphibian species, 8 are endemic. For freshwater fish, 92 species have been recorded of which 23 are endemic. There are two endemic freshwater fish genera (Brooks et al. 2006). This hotspot is threatened by high population growth, logging, firewood collection, building construction, pastures and overgrazing (causing erosion and siltation in rivers), dam building, mining, road building, uncontrolled unplanned development for mass tourism, collection of traditional medication and illegal hunting (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 32 people/km2 in the mountains of southwest China (Brooks et al. 2006).

40. Indo-Burma
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. (7 000 spp. endemic),
Mammals: 433 spp. (73 spp. endemic),
Birds: spp. (64 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 522 spp. (204 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 286 spp. (154 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: spp. (553 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by human population growth, fire, planta-tions, logging, firewood collection, charcoal production, mining, wet-land drainage, dams, aquaculture, tree planting on mudflats, over-fishing, destructive fishing techniques and the wildlife trade.
Human density: 134 people/km2
This hotspot has unique seasonal weather patterns. Several islands, such as the Andaman Islands and Hainan Island are included. It originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). Socio-political divisions hamper the study of the floral in the Indo-Burma Hotspot. There are about species of vascular plants of which are endemic. This hotspot has 433 mammal species of which 73 are endemic. Seven mammal genera are endemic and there is an endemic bat family. Of 1 266 bird species, 64 are endemic, with five endemic genera. The rivers and wetlands of this hotspot are critical for the conservation of several widespread bird species that have been suffering population declines. For reptiles, 204 species out of 522 are endemic. There are twelve endemic reptile genera in this hotspot. Of 286 amphibian species, 154 are endemic. Three reptile genera are endemic. For freshwater fish, species have been recorded of which 553 are endemic. Given the number of freshwater species occurring in the region, it is not surprising that there are 30 endemic freshwater fish genera and one endemic family (Indostomidae) (Brooks et al. 2006). The picture shows an armoured stickleback (Family Indostomidae). This hotspot is principally threatened by human population growth and economic development. On the ground, the threats take the form of fire, plantation forestry, commercial logging, firewood collection, charcoal production, mining, wetland drainage, damming of rivers, upsets to the flood cycle caused by reservoir management, aquaculture, tree planting on mudflats, overfishing, destructive fishing techniques and the wildlife trade (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 134 people/km2 in the Indo-Burma Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).

41. Sundaland
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. ( spp. endemic),
Mammals: 380 spp. (172 spp. endemic),
Birds: 769 spp. (142 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 452 spp. (243 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 244 spp. (196 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 950 spp. (350 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by logging, agriculture, rubber production, pulp production, non-timber forest product harvesting, oil palm plantations, military and police activities, road construction, mining, fires, the wildlife trade and political developments.
Human density: 153 people/km2
This hotspot forms the western portion of the Indo-Malayan archipelago including some islands and the Malay Peninsula (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006p). Three other hotspots adjoin this one: the Indo-Burma Hotspot, the Philippines Hotspot and the Wallacea Hotspot. It originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are about species of vascular plants of which are endemic. While only one plant family (Scyphostegiaceae) is endemic, at least 117 plant genera are endemic to this hotspot. This hotspot has 380 mammal species of which 172 are endemic. Seventeen mammal genera are endemic to this hotspot. Of 769 bird species, 142 are endemic. For reptiles, 243 species out of 452 are endemic. At a higher taxonomic level, 24 reptile genera and 3 reptile families are endemic to this hotspot. Of 244 amphibian species, 196 are endemic. Seven amphibian genera are endemic. The picture shows an endemic slender toad (Leptophryne borbonica). For freshwater fish, 950 species have been recorded of which 350 are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006). This hotspot is threatened by commercial and illegal logging, agriculture, rubber production, pulp production, non-timber forest product harvesting, oil palm plantations, military and police activities, road construction, mining, fires, the wildlife trade and political developments such as the Transmigration Program (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 153 people/km2 in the Sundaland Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).

42. The Sunda Islands Marine Hotspot
This marine hotspot stretches from West Java east to Kepulauan Tanimbar and is thus adjacent to the terrestrial Sundaland and Wallacea Hotspots.
The coral reefs cover about km2.
Of the species studied, this marine hotspot has:
1 430 widespread species,
13 endemic species occur.
The threat score is 2.53.
The threats include intensive destructive fishing, pollution from land and an expanding live fish trade.
This marine hotspot stretches from West Java east to Kepulauan Tanimbar and is thus adjacent to the terrestrial Sundaland and Wallacea Hotspots (Roberts et al. 2002a, b). The coral reefs cover about km2. Of the 3 235 species studied, this marine hotspot has 1 430 widespread species and 13 endemic species. The threat score is 2.53 (Roberts et al. 2002a). The threats include intensive destructive fishing, pollution from land and an expanding live fish trade (Center for Applied Biodiversity Science).

43. Wallacea
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. (1 500 spp. endemic),
Mammals: 222 spp. (127 spp. endemic),
Birds: 647 spp. (262 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 222 spp. (99 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 48 spp. (33 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 250 spp. (50 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by commercial logging, crops and pastures, timber plantations, land settlement schemes, fire, mining development, hunting and poaching.
Human density: 81 people/km2
This hotspot, comprising the central islands of Indonesia, is separated from Sundaland by Wallace’s Line (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006q). It originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are about species of vascular plants of which are endemic. At least 12 plant genera are endemic. This hotspot has 222 mammal species of which 127 are endemic. Of 647 bird species, 262 are endemic with 29 endemic bird genera. The picture shows a maleo (Macrocephalon maleo). For reptiles, 99 species out of 222 are endemic. Three snake genera are endemic to this hotspot. Of 48 amphibian species, 33 are endemic. All the amphibian species are frogs. For freshwater fish, 250 species have been recorded of which 50 are endemic. Almost all the fish species are salt tolerant. There are at least two endemic freshwater fish genera. Upwards of 80 bird-wing butterfly species occur in this hotspot. Of these bird-wing butterfly species, at least 40 are endemic. Of the recorded 109 tiger beetle species, 79 are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006). This hotspot is threatened by commercial logging, crops and pastures, timber plantations, land settlement schemes, fire, mining development, hunting and poaching (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 81 people/km2 in Wallacea (Brooks et al. 2006).
Additional Notes
Extract from wikipedia ~ “The Wallace Line is a boundary that separates the zoogeographical regions of Asia and Australasia. West of the line are found organisms related to Asiatic species; to the east, mostly organisms related to Australian species. The line is named after Alfred Russel Wallace, who noticed the apparent dividing line during his travels through the East Indies in the 19th century. The line runs through the Malay Archipelago, between Borneo and Sulawesi (Celebes); and between Bali (in the west) and Lombok (in the east). Evidence of the line was also noted in Antonio Pigafetta's biological contrasts between the Philippines and the Spice Islands, recorded during the voyage of Ferdinand Magellan in 1521.”

44. The Philippines
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. (6 091 spp. endemic),
Mammals: 167 spp. (102 spp. endemic),
Birds: 535 spp. (186 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 237 spp. (160 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 89 spp. (76 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 281 spp. (67 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by invasive alien species, severe rural poverty, logging, mining, land conversion and the country’s development objectives.
Human density: 273 people/km2
The islands of the Philippines are both a hotspot and a megadiverse country. This makes the Philippines a top conservation priority. It originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are about species of vascular plants of which are endemic. Twenty-six plant genera are endemic. This hotspot has 167 mammal species of which 102 are endemic. The generic mammal endemism is also high, of 83 genera, 23 are endemic. Of 535 bird species, 186 are endemic. The picture shows the endemic wiskered pitta (Pitta kochi). One bird family (Rhabdornithidae) is endemic. For reptiles, 160 species out of 237 are endemic. There are six endemic reptile genera in this hotspot. Of 89 recorded amphibian species, 76 are endemic. New amphibian species are still being discovered and described. For freshwater fish, 281 species have been recorded of which 67 are endemic. There are nine endemic fish genera. Nearly insect species have been recorded in the Philippines. The species endemism is about 70%. Of 915 butterfly species about a third are endemic. More than 130 species of tiger beetle have been recorded of which more than 110 species are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006). This hotspot is threatened by invasive alien species (especially in wetlands, the native species of Lake Lanao have almost certainly been lost), severe rural poverty, logging (both legal and illegal), mining, land conversion and the country’s development objectives (including roads, irrigation, power and energy development and ports) (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 273 people/km2 in the Philippines (Brooks et al. 2006).

45. The Philippines Marine Hotspot
This marine hotspot includes the Philippine archipelago and is thus adjacent to the terrestrial Philippines Hotspot.
The coral reefs cover about km2.
Of the species studied, this marine hotspot has:
1 471 widespread species,
17 endemic species occur.
The threat score is 2.91.
The threats include overfishing, the use of explosives and poison to in fishing, polluted runoff from the land caused by agriculture, logging and urban development.
This marine hotspot includes the Philippine archipelago and is thus adjacent to the terrestrial Philippines Hotspot (Roberts et al. 2002a, b). The coral reefs cover about 21 983 km2. Of the 3 235 species studied, this marine hotspot has 1 471 widespread species and 17 endemic species. The threat score is 2.91 – the highest of all the marine hotspots (Roberts et al. 2002a). The threats include overfishing, the use of explosives and poison to in fishing, polluted runoff from the land caused by agriculture, logging and urban development (Center for Applied Biodiversity Science).

46. The Southern Japan, Taiwan and Southern China Marine Hotspot
This marine hotspot includes the Ryukyu Islands, Southern China and Taiwan and is thus adjacent to the terrestrial Japan and Philippines Hotspots.
The coral reefs cover about km2.
Of the species studied, this marine hotspot has:
1 187 widespread species,
75 endemic species occur.
The threat score is 2.21.
The threats include coastal development, global climate change and plagues of crown- of-thorns starfish.
This marine hotspot includes the Ryukyu Islands, Southern China and Taiwan and is thus adjacent to the terrestrial Japan and Philippines Hotspots (Brooks et al. 2006, Roberts et al. 2002a, b). The coral reefs cover about 3 136 km2. Of the 3 235 species studied, this marine hotspot has 1 187 widespread species and 75 endemic species. The threat score is 2.21 (Roberts et al. 2002a). The threats include coastal development, global climate change and plagues of crown-of-thorns starfish (Center for Applied Biodiversity Science).

47. Japan
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. (1 950 spp. endemic),
Mammals: 94 spp. (46 spp. endemic),
Birds: 366 spp. (13 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 66 spp. (28 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 50 spp. (44 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 214 spp. (52 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by invasive alien species, development of ski resorts and golf courses, road development, wetland drainage for agriculture, river channelisation, plantation forestry and urban development.
Human density: 336 people/km2
Situated at the junction of three tectonic plates are the and more islands that make up the Japanese archipelago which forms this hotspot. This hotspot has a comparatively wide latitudinal range – it stretches from about 22o N to roughly 46o N latitude. It originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are about species of vascular plants of which are endemic. Three endemic plant families and about twenty endemic plant genera occur in Japan. This hotspot has 94 mammal species of which 46 are endemic. Six mammal genera are endemic to Japan. Of 366 bird species, 13 are endemic. At least two bird genera are endemic to Japan. For reptiles, 28 species out of 66 are endemic. Of 50 amphibian species, 44 are endemic. The picture shows a subadult oki salamander (Hynobius okiensis). For freshwater fish, 214 species have been recorded of which 52 are endemic. Four freshwater fish genera are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006). This hotspot is threatened by invasive alien species, development of ski resorts and golf courses, road development, wetland drainage for agriculture, river channelisation, plantation forestry and urban development (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 336 people/km2 in Japan (Brooks et al. 2006).

48. Polynesia/Micronesia
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. (3 074 spp. endemic),
Mammals: 16 spp. (12 spp. endemic),
Birds: 292 spp. (163 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 64 spp. (31 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 3 spp. (3 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 96 spp. (20 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by invasive alien plant species, logging, agriculture, urbanization and commercialization, hunting, trapping and fire. Rising sea levels threaten low-lying islands.
Human density: 59 people/km2
Also known as Oceania, this tropical/subtropicl hotspot, consisting of at least islands spread over about 40 million km2 of the Pacific Ocean, has one of the smallest land areas of all the hotspots (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006r). It originally covered 47 239 km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are about species of vascular plants of which are endemic. The family Degeneriaceae is endemic. This hotspot has 16 mammal species of which 12 are endemic. All but one of the mammal species are bat species. The exception is the endemic Hawaiian monk seal (Monachus schauinslandi). Of 292 bird species, 163 are endemic. About a quarter of all the bird genera are endemic to the region. For reptiles, 31 species out of 64 are endemic. The picture shows the endemic Fijian crested iguana (Brachylophus vitiensis). There are two endemic reptile genera. All 3 amphibian species belong to the genus Platymantis and are endemic. While none of the species of fish are purely freshwater fish, 96 species have a freshwater adult stage (the larval stages are marine). Twenty fish species are endemic. Land snail diversity is exceptional in this region – of 13 families of pulmonate land snails,4 are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006). This hotspot is extremely threatened by invasive alien species (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006r). Hawaii has a greater diversity of invasive alien plant species than of native plant species. Other threats include logging, agriculture, urbanization and its accompanying commercialization, hunting, trapping and fire. Rising sea levels caused by global warming threaten low-lying islands (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 59 people/km2 in Polynesia-Micronesia (Brooks et al. 2006).

49. East Melanesian Islands
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. (3 000 spp. endemic),
Mammals: 86 spp. (39 spp. endemic),
Birds: 360 spp. (149 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 117 spp. (54 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 42 spp. (38 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 52 spp. (3 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by human population growth, invasive alien species, logging, clearing for plantations, agricultural expansion, mining and poor governance .
Human density: 13 people/km2
This hotspot consists of the islands of Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands and the Bismarck and Admiralty Islands – about islands in all (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006s). It originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are about species of vascular plants of which are endemic. This hotspot has 86 mammal species of which 39 are endemic. There are three endemic bat genera. Of 360 bird species, 149 are endemic. There are seven endemic bird genera. For reptiles, 54 species out of 117 are endemic. Five of the six endemic reptile genera have only a single species. Of 42 amphibian species, 38 are endemic. The picture shows the endemic Solomon Island eyelash frog (Ceratobatrachus guentheri). Two of the four endemic amphibian genera only have one species. For freshwater fish, 52 species have been recorded of which only 3 are endemic. The fish all have marine origins and are able to tolerate a wide range of salt concentrations (Brooks et al. 2006). The threats to this hotspot vary from island to island. Human population growth and invasive alien species are a general threat. In the Bismarck Islands, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu logging and clearing for plantations are the worst threats. In the Admiralty Islands, agricultural expansion has been the worst threat. Mining and poor governance are also threats (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 13 people/km2 in the East Melanesian Islands (Brooks et al. 2006).

50. New Caledonia
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. (2 432 spp. endemic),
Mammals: 9 spp. (6 spp. endemic),
Birds: 105 spp. (23 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 70 spp. (62 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 0 spp. (0 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 85 spp. (9 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by invasive alien species, nickel mining, bush fires, logging, hunting and the illegal collection of selected animals for trade.
Human density: 11 people/km2
This hotspot is made up of islands - the island of Grande Terre, Belep Island, Surprise Island, the Loyalty Islands, the Isle of Pines, the Chesterfield Islands, Hunter Island and Matthew Island. One of the smallest hotspots, it originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are about species of vascular plants of which 2 432 are endemic. With 108 endemic plant genera and five endemic plant families, this hotspot is often classified as a distinct floristic subkingdom. The 9 mammal species of this hotspot are all bat species. Six bat species are endemic. Of 105 bird species, 23 are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006). Three endemic bird genera and one endemic bird family (Rhynochetidae) occur in this hotspot. For reptiles, 62 species out of 70 are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006t). Eleven reptile genera are endemic to this hotspot. New Caledonia has no native amphibian species. For freshwater fish, 85 species have been recorded of which 9 are endemic. The freshwater fish genus Protogobius is endemic to New Caledonia. The picture shows an endemic loach goby (Protogobius attiti). This hotspot is rich in land snails, of which 200 species have been described so far. About 15 of an estimated 37 species of macro-crustaceans are endemic. To date, insect species have been recorded. There are 70 butterfly species, 300 moth species and 16 tiger beetle species recorded. Almost 200 spiders have been classified so far. New Caledonia has the only spider family that is endemic to one island – the Bradystichidae (Brooks et al. 2006). This hotspot is threatened by invasive alien species, nickel mining (which causes deforestation, erosion and consequently the destruction of streams and coral reefs by siltation and water pollution), bush fires, logging, hunting and the illegal collection of selected animals for trade (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006t). There are 11 people/km2 in New Caledonia (Brooks et al. 2006).

51. New Zealand
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. (1 865 spp. endemic),
Mammals: 10 spp. (3 spp. endemic),
Birds: 195 spp. (86 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 37 spp. (37 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 4 spp. (4 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 39 spp. (25 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by invasive alien species and massive habitat destruction in the form of deforestation, ecosystem degradation and wetland drainage.
Human density: 14 people/km2
This hotspot comprises North Island, South Island, Stewart Island, the Kermadec Islands, the Chatham Islands, Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, the Antipodes Islands, the Auckland Islands, the Bounty Islands, Campbell Island, Macquarie Island and the Snares Islands. It originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006). There are about species of vascular plants of which are endemic. There are 35 endemic plant genera and one endemic plant family (Ixerbaceae) in this region. This hotspot has 10 mammal species of which 3 are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006). Of these species, only two are terrestrial. Both land species are endemic bat species and one represents the endemic bat family (Mystacinidae) (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006u). Of 195 bird species, 86 are endemic with 17 endemic bird genera and three endemic bird families as well (Brooks et al. 2006). By one classification, this hotspot is unique because it has an endemic bird order (Apterygiformes - the kiwis), however, another classification lists the endemic family Apterygidae as belonging to the order Struthioniformes, which is not endemic to New Zealand (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006v). All the 37 reptile species are endemic. Five reptile genera are endemic. The tuatara forms an endemic order (Rhynchocephalia). The picture shows a tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus). All 4 amphibian species belong to the endemic frog family Leiopelmatidae. For freshwater fish, 39 species have been recorded of which 25 are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006). This hotspot is threatened by invasive alien species and massive habitat destruction in the form of deforestation, ecosystem degradation and wetland drainage (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 14 people/km2 in the New Zealand Hotspot (Brooks et al. 2006).

52. Southwest Australia
This hotspot originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation.
Known biodiversity:
Vascular plants: spp. (2 948 spp. endemic),
Mammals: 59 spp. (12 spp. endemic),
Birds: 285 spp. (10 spp. endemic),
Reptiles: 177 spp. (27 spp. endemic),
Amphibians: 32 spp. (22 spp. endemic),
Freshwater fish: 20 spp. (10 spp. endemic).
This hotspot is threatened by invasive alien species, agriculture, bush fires (used in hunting and land clearing) and mining (which causes habitat destruction and water pollution).
Human density: 5 people/km2
This hotspot matches the Southwest Botanical Province of Australia and has a Mediterranean-type climate. It originally covered km2 but only about km2 is still primary vegetation (Brooks et al. 2006, Wikipedia Contributors 2006w). There are about species of vascular plants of which 2 948 are endemic. Four plant families and 87 plant genera are endemic. The pictures show the endemic pitcher plant (Cephalotus follicularis) – a close up of the leaves and a whole plant. This hotspot has 59 mammal species of which 12 are endemic. The mammal family Tarsipedidae is endemic to this hotspot. Of 285 bird species, 10 are endemic. For reptiles, 27 species out of 177 are endemic. At least one reptile genus is endemic. Of 32 amphibian species, 22 are endemic. At least four amphibian genera are endemic. For freshwater fish, 20 species have been recorded of which 10 are endemic. Three freshwater fish species are endemic (Brooks et al. 2006). This hotspot is threatened by invasive alien species, agriculture, bush fires (used in hunting and land clearing) and the mining of bauxite and aluminium (which causes habitat destruction and water pollution) (Brooks et al. 2006). There are 5 people/km2 in Southwest Australia (Brooks et al. 2006).

53. Concluding Remarks
The main threats to the biodiversity hotspots are human population growth, economic development and invasive alien species.
Prioritization schemes require regular updating because circum-stances change.
All the forms of prioritization considered in this chapter provide indications of where conservation effort is necessary. This is good but it must be translated into action on the ground before conservation benefits.
It is not a good idea to waste money (and time) on developing new prioritization and/or representation schemes instead of actually conserving biodiversity. New prioritization and/or representation schemes are especially wasteful of resources if other such schemes already exist.
Conservation planners are not usually the ultimate decision makers.
Prioritization and representation are not enough to bring about conservation. Other actions are required to achieve conservation.
The main threats to the biodiversity hotspots are human population growth, economic development and invasive alien species. Prioritization schemes require regular updating (preferably by the original proponents of the scheme) because circumstances change. All the forms of prioritization considered in this chapter provide indications of where conservation effort is necessary. This is good but it must be translated into action on the ground before conservation benefits. It is not a good idea to waste money (and time) on developing new prioritization and/or representation schemes instead of actually conserving biodiversity by creating protected areas or reducing the impacts of the locals on protected areas by providing alternative options to meet the local needs. New prioritization and/or representation schemes are especially wasteful of resources if other such schemes already exist (see Jepson & Whittaker (2002)). Jepson & Whittaker (2002) point out that new schemes, like the ecoregions, may weaken conservation efforts implying that the science conservation efforts were based on is somehow inferior. Coarse scale groupings could suggest that all areas within an ecoregion are of equal value (Jepson & Whittaker 2002) and thus allow governments an excuse not to protect areas that are potentially lucrative if exploited. While Wikramanayake et al. (2002) feel that any conservation planner who is competent will meaningfully subdivide the ecoregions, I feel that they miss the point that conservation planners are not usually the ultimate decision makers. Conservation is seldom a high priority to governments or governing bodies (the people with the power to make the conservation decisions) – consider Jepson & Whittaker’s (2002) comment on the removal of economically valuable areas of lowland habitat from proposed reserves in Indonesia before the reserves were proclaimed. As the Jepson & Whittaker (2002) example shows, prioritization and representation are not enough to bring about conservation. Other actions (e.g. lobbying and education) are required to achieve conservation.

54. Links to Other Chapters
Chapter 1 Biodiversity: what is it?
Chapter 2 The evolution of biodiversity
Chapter 3 Biodiversity: why is it important?
Chapter 4 Global biodiversity and its decline
Chapter 5 Biodiversity: why are we losing it?
Chapter 6 Extinction: past, present, future
Chapter 7 Areas of high biodiversity under threat
I hope that you found chapter 7 informative.
I hope that you found chapter 7 informative.