1. Medieval England 1066-1485

2. Bayeaux Tapestry The tapestry tells the story of the Norman conquest of England. The two combatants are the Anglo-Saxon English, led by Harold Godwinson, recently crowned as King of England (before that a powerful earl), and the Normans, led by William the Conqueror. The two sides can be distinguished on the tapestry by the customs of the day. The Normans shaved the back of their heads, while the Anglo- Saxons had mustaches.

3. Bayeaux Tapestry A star with hair then appears: Halley's Comet. The first appearance of the comet would have been 24 April, nearly four months after Harold's coronation. Comets, in the beliefs of the Middle Ages, warned of impending doom. The news of Harold's coronation is taken to Normandy, where William then builds a fleet of ships. The invaders reach England, and land unopposed. The Battle of Hastings was fought on October 14, 1066. The English fight on foot behind a shield wall, the Normans are on mounted cavalry. The first to fall are Harold's brothers. Harold’s death is shown as the figure with the arrow in his eye; but he could also be the figure just before with a spear through his chest, the character just after with his legs hacked off, or could indeed have suffered all three fates. The English then flee the field.

4. William the Conqueror William I of England (1027– September 9, 1087), better known as William the Conqueror, was Duke of Normandy from 1035 and King of England from 1066 to his death. To claim the English crown, William invaded England in 1066, leading an army of Normans to victory over the Anglo-Saxon forces of Harold Godwinson (who died in the conflict) at the Battle of Hastings, known as the Norman Conquest. His reign, which brought Norman culture to England, had an enormous impact on the subsequent course of England in the Middle Ages. In addition to political changes, his reign also saw changes to English law, a program of building and fortification, changes to the vocabulary of the English language, and the introduction of continental European feudalism into England.

5. Reforms In 1085, in order to ascertain the extent of his new dominions and to improve taxation, William commissioned all his counselors for the compilation of the Doomesday Book, published in 1086. The book was a survey of England's productive capacity similar to a modern census. People were taxed according to their property. FEUDALISM King William owns all the land and gives it to his loyal followers 25% remains with the king 25% goes to the church 50% divided among the Barons – each receiving small parts insuring the power of William Classes: King – Barons – Knights – Peasants (Anglo-Saxons; worked the land but did not own) William also ordered the building of many castles, keeps, and motes, among them the Tower of London.

6. For safety and for defense, people in the Middle Ages formed small communities around a central lord or master. Lived on a manor, which consisted of the castle, the church, the village, and the surrounding farm land. Manors were isolated, with occasional visits from peddlers, pilgrims on their way to the Crusades, or soldiers from other fiefdoms. In this "feudal" system, the king awarded land grants or "fiefs" to his most important nobles, his barons, and his bishops, in return for their contribution of soldiers for the king's armies. Lowest echelon of society were the peasants, also called "serfs“. In exchange for living and working on his land, the lord offered his peasants protection.

7. Peasant Life Peasant Life Peasants worked the land and produced the goods that the lord and his manor needed. This exchange was not without hardship for the serfs. They were heavily taxed and were required to relinquish much of what they harvested. The peasants did not even "belong to" themselves, according to medieval law. The lords, in close association with the church, assumed the roles of judges in carrying out the laws of the manor.

8. Role of Women Joan of Arc Woman of Middle Ages Women, whether they were nobles or peasants, held a difficult position in society. They were largely confined to household tasks such as cooking, baking bread, sewing, weaving, and spinning. They also hunted for food and fought in battles, learning to use weapons to defend their homes and castles. Some held other occupations. There were blacksmiths, merchants, and apothecaries. Others were midwives, worked in the fields, or were engaged in creative endeavors such as writing, playing musical instruments, dancing, and painting. Some women were known as witches, capable of sorcery and healing. Others became nuns and devoted their lives to God and spiritual matters. Famous women of the Middle Ages include the writer Christine de Pisan; the abbess and musician Hildegard of Bingen; and the patron of the arts Eleanor of Aquitaine. A French peasant's daughter, Joan of Arc, or St. Joan, heard voices telling her to protect France against the English invasion. She dressed in armor and led her troops to victory in the early fifteenth century. "The Maid of Orleans" as she was known, was later burned as a witch.

9. Religion The Catholic Church was the only church in Europe during the Middle Ages. Church leaders such as bishops and archbishops sat on the king's council and played leading roles in government. Bishops, who were often wealthy and came from noble families, ruled over groups of parishes called "diocese." Parish priests, on the other hand, came from humbler backgrounds and often had little education. The village priest tended to the sick and indigent and, if he was able, taught Latin and the Bible to the youth of the village. Pilgrimages Pilgrimages were an important part of religious life in the Middle Ages. Many people took journeys to visit holy shrines such as the Church of St. James at Santiago de Compostela in Spain, the Canterbury cathedral in England, and sites in Jerusalem and Rome. Chaucer's Canterbury Tales is a series of stories told by 30 pilgrims as they traveled to Canterbury.

10. Religion Monks and Nuns Monasteries in the Middle Ages were based on the rules set down by St. Benedict in the sixth century. The monks became known as Benedictines and took vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience to their leaders. They were required to perform manual labor and were forbidden to own property, leave the monastery, or become entangled in the concerns of society. Daily tasks were often carried out in silence. Monks and their female counterparts, nuns, who lived in convents, provided for the less-fortunate members of the community. Monasteries and nunneries were safe havens for pilgrims and other travelers. Monks went to the monastery church eight times a day in a routine of worship that involved singing, chanting, and reciting prayers from the divine offices and from the service for Mass. The first office, "Matins," began at 2 A.M. and the next seven followed at regular intervals, culminating in "Vespers" in the evening and "Compline" before the monks retired at night. Between prayers, the monks read or copied religious texts and music. Monks were often well educated and devoted their lives to writing and learning. The Venerable Bede, an English Benedictine monk who was born in the seventh century, wrote histories and books on science and religion.

11. Peasant Homelife Most medieval homes were cold, damp, and dark. Sometimes it was warmer and lighter outside the home than within its walls. Floors strewn with rushes and herbs. For security purposes, windows, when they were present, were very small openings with wooden shutters that were closed at night or in bad weather. Many peasant families ate, slept, and spent time together in very small quarters, rarely more than one or two rooms. The houses had thatched roofs and were easily destroyed.

12. Peasants The Kitchen No chimneys Stone hearth in the center of the room. This was not only where the cooking took place, but also the source of central heating. In peasant families, the wife did the cooking and baking. The peasant diet consisted of breads, vegetables from their own gardens, dairy products from their own sheep, goats, and cows, and pork from their own livestock. Often the true taste of their meat, salted and used throughout the year, was masked by the addition of herbs, leftover breads, and vegetables. Some vegetables, such as cabbages, leeks, and onions became known as "pot-herbs." This pottage was a staple of the peasant diet.

13. Homes of the Wealthy More elaborate than the peasants' homes. Floors were paved Tapestries were hung on the walls, providing not only decoration but also an extra layer of warmth. Only the wealthy could afford panes of glass; sometimes only churches and royal residences had glass windows. The kitchens of manor houses and castles had big fireplaces where meat, even large oxen, could be roasted on spits. These kitchens were usually in separate buildings, to minimize the threat of fire. Pantries were hung with birds and beasts, including swans, blackbirds, ducks, pigeons, rabbits, mutton, venison, and wild boar. Many of these animals were caught on hunts.

14. Wealthy Living Garbage and Disposal Current archaeological studies of sewage and rubbish pits contribute to our understanding of what medieval people ate. One of the most informative pits was found in Southampton, England. This pit belonged to a prominent merchant. It contained the remains of berries, fruits, and nuts, as well as pottery, glass, and fabrics, including silk, from Europe and the Near East. It also contained the remains of a Barbary ape. Documents found at the site describe the family's consumption of meat, use of pewter utensils, and love of music. Evidence that butchery took place during this time was also found in these documents.

15. Health As the populations of medieval towns and cities increased, hygienic conditions worsened, leading to a vast array of health problems. Medical knowledge was limited and, despite the efforts of medical practitioners and public and religious institutions to institute regulations, medieval Europe did not have an adequate health care system. No antibiotics.

16. Health Myths and superstitions For example, that disease was spread by bad odors; sins of the soul. Many people sought relief from their ills through meditation, prayer, pilgrimages, and other non-medical methods. The body was viewed as a part of the universe, a concept derived from the Greeks and Romans. Four humors, or body fluids, were directly related to the four elements: fire=yellow bile or choler; water=phlegm; earth=black bile; air=blood. These four humors had to be balanced. Too much of one was thought to cause a change in personality--for example, too much black bile could create melancholy. Medicine was often a risky business. Bloodletting was a popular method of restoring a patient's health and "humors." Early surgery was often done by barbers without anesthesia

17. Who Was Treated & Who Treated Who was Treated and Who Did the Treating Medical treatment was available mainly to the wealthy. Those living in villages rarely had the help of doctors, who practiced mostly in the cities and courts. Remedies were often herbal in nature, but also included ground earthworms, urine, and animal excrement. Many medieval medical manuscripts contained recipes for remedies that called for hundreds of therapeutic substances--the notion that every substance in nature held some sort of power accounts for the enormous variety of substances. Many treatments were administered by people outside the medical tradition. Coroners' roles from the time reveal how lay persons often made sophisticated medical judgments without the aid of medical experts, some of the major causes of death.

18. Health - Humor Humor Natural functions, such as sneezing, were thought to be the best way of maintaining health. When there was a build-up of any one humor, or body fluid, it could be disposed of through sweat, tears, feces, or urine. When these natural systems broke down, illness occurred. Medieval doctors stressed prevention, exercise, a good diet, and a good environment. One of the best diagnostic tools was uroscopy, in which the color of the patient's urine was examined to determine the treatment. Other diagnostic aids included taking the pulse and collecting blood samples. Treatments ranged from administering laxatives and diuretics to fumigation, cauterization, and the taking of hot baths and/or herbs.

19. Surgery Performed as a last resort. Known to be successful in cases of breast cancer, hemorrhoids, gangrene, and cataracts, as well as tuberculosis of the lymph glands in the neck (scrofula). The most common form of surgery was bloodletting; it was meant to restore the balance of fluids in the body. Potions used to relieve pain or induce sleep during the surgery were themselves potentially lethal. One of these consisted of lettuce, gall from a castrated boar, opium, henbane (poisonous plant), and hemlock juice-- the hemlock juice could easily have caused death.

20. Medical Cures For toothache: Take a candle and burn it close to the tooth. The worms that are gnawing the tooth will fall out into a cup of water held by the mouth. For evil spirits in the head: For this, surgeons used trepanning. This was where a surgeon cut a hole into the skull to release evil spirits trapped in the brain. The operation might also include cutting out the part of the brain that had been ‘infected’ with these evil spirits. Incredibly, people are known to have survived operations such as these as skulls have been found which show bone growth around the hole cut by a surgeon – a sign that someone did survive such an operation if only for awhile.

21. Medicine For general illnesses: People were told that a pilgrimage to a holy shrine to show your love of God would cure them of illnesses especially if they had some holy water sold at the place of pilgrimage. After the death of Thomas Becket in 1170, Canterbury Cathedral became a place of pilgrimage which brought even more wealth to the city. However, more people coming to the city also increased the risk of disease being brought in. Blood letting: This was when blood was drained from a certain spot in your body. The idea behind this was similar to trepanning in that it released bad blood from your body. The use of leeches was common for this but dirty knives were also used which only increased the risk to the patient.

22. Henry II (1154–1189) Legal reform Henry II's reign saw the establishment of Royal Magistrate courts. Allowed court officials under authority of the Crown to rule on local disputes, reducing the workload on Royal courts and delivering justice with greater efficiency. Henry also worked to make the legal system fairer. Henry's support of juries was a great contribution to the country's social history. Henry II was keen to dominate the church like the state. Sixteen constitutions, aimed at decreasing ecclesiastical interference from Rome.

23. Henry Secular courts, under the King's influence, would have jurisdiction over clerical trials and disputes. Henry's authority guaranteed him majority support, but the newly appointed Archbishop of Canterbury refused to ratify the proposals. Henry was stubborn called the Archbishop, Thomas Becket, before the Royal Council. Becket had fled to France and was under the protection of Henry's rival, Louis VII of France. The King continued in his pursuit of control over his clerics, to the point where his religious policy became detrimental to his subjects. By 1170, the Pope was considering excommunicating all of Britain. Only Henry's agreement that Becket could return to England without penalty prevented this fate.

24. Canterbury Cathedral & Murder of St. Thomas a Becket Archbishop of Canterbury who opposed Henry II over the balance between royal and religious power; was murdered in the cathedral Considered a martyr and later made a saint His blood was held to contain great curative qualities, restoring health to the sick Small quantities of Becket’s blood was given to pilgrims for centuries after his death

25. Murder of Thomas Becket "What miserable drones and traitors have I nurtured and promoted in my household who let their lord be treated with such shameful contempt by a low-born cleric!" were the words which sparked the darkest event in Henry's religious tirades. This speech has translated into legend in the form of "Will no one rid me of this troublesome priest?“ Bitter at Becket, his old friend, constantly thwarting his clerical constitutions, the King shouted in anger but most likely not with intent. However, four of Henry's knights, Reginald Fitzurse, Hugh de Moreville, William de Tracy, and Richard le Breton overheard their King's cries and decided to act on his words.

26. Becket’s Murder On 29 December 1170, they entered Canterbury Cathedral, finding Becket near the stairs to the crypt. They beat down the Archbishop, killing him with several blows. Becket's brains were scattered upon the ground with the words; "Let us go, this fellow will not be getting up again." Whatever the rights and wrongs, it certainly tainted Henry's later reign. For the remaining 20 years of his rule, he would personally regret the death of a man who "in happier times...had been a friend".

27. Canonization Just three years later, Becket was canonized and revered as a martyr against secular interference in God's church; Pope Alexander III had declared Thomas Becket a saint. This was yet another failure in Henry's religious policy, an arena which he seemed to lack adequate subtlety. And politically, Henry had to sign the Compromise of Avranches which removed from the secular courts almost all jurisdiction over the clergy.

28. Eleanor of Aquitaine Wife of King Henry II Influence: Courtly Love Courtly love saw a woman as a righteous spiritual and moral force, a view that was in opposition to the Church’s attitude regarding the role of sex in relationships. Marriage had been declared a sacrament of the Church, and within Christian marriage, the only purpose was procreation; any sex beyond that purpose seen as unholy. The ideal state of a Christian was celibacy, even in marriage.

29. Courtly Love Courtly love had a civilizing effect on knightly behavior, beginning in the late 11th century; it has been suggested that the prevalence of arranged marriages required other outlets for the expression of more personal occurrences of romantic love. At times, the lady could be a far-away princess, and some tales told of men who had fallen in love with women whom they had never seen, merely on hearing their perfection described, but normally she was not so distant. As the etiquette of courtly love became more complicated, the knight might wear the colors of his lady: where blue or black were sometimes the colors of faithfulness; green could be a sign of unfaithfulness.

30. Courtly Love Originated with the troubadours of the late eleventh century. The troubadours, strolling minstrels, flourished between 1100 and 1350 and were from various courts in the south of France. They wrote almost entirely about sexual love and developed the concept and practice of courtly love. They challenged the traditional Christian ideals of love, marriage, manhood, virtue, and femininity. By the middle of the 13 th century, their philosophy had become practically institutionalized throughout the courts of Europe. Properly applied, courtly love was a forbidden affair that was characterized by five main attributes: The doctrine of Courtly Love was designed to teach courtiers how to be lovely, charming, and delightful. Its basic premise was that being in love would teach you how to be loveable and pleasing. This kind of love was designed for communal living at a wealthy court where people had plentiful leisure and desired to entertain and be entertained.

31. Aristocrats Ritualistic. Couples engaged in a courtly relationship, exchanged gifts and tokens of their affair. The lady was wooed according to elaborate conventions of etiquette and was the constant recipient of songs, poems, bouquets, sweet favors, and ceremonial gestures. For all this attention, she need only return a short hint of approval, a mere shadow of affection. She was the commanding "mistress" of the affair, he was a lowly but faithful servant. Feudal nobility arranged marriages to suit families' advantages, often while the children were still infants.

32. Aristocrats A married woman was the ward of her husband, had limited legal rights and was subject to the will of her husband, who had the power to punish her physically. This ritual gave her the upper hand. Secret. Courtly lovers were pledged to strict secrecy. The rest of the world was excluded. They composed a universe unto themselves--a special world with its own places, rules, codes, and commandments.

33. Aristocrats Adulterous. One of its principle attractions was that it offered an escape from the dull routines and boring confinements of noble marriage, which was typically little more than a political or economic alliance for the purpose of producing royal offspring. Literary. Courtly love first gained attention as a subject and theme in imaginative literature. Knights and their passionately adored ladies were popular figures in song and fable before there were real- life imitators in the palace halls of medieval Europe.

34. King Richard the Lionheart (1189-1199) Reputation of great military man of the Crusades Anti-Semitic Spoke French; minimal English Only 6 months in England during his 10-year reign.

35. King John (1199-1216) 1215- Signed the Magna Carta – Nobles divided their land among the lesser nobility, who became their servants or "vassals." – Many of these vassals became so powerful that the kings had difficulty controlling them. – By 1100, certain barons had castles and courts that rivaled the king's; they could be serious threats if they were not pleased in their dealings with the crown. – In 1215, the English barons formed an alliance that forced King John to sign the Magna Carta. While it gave no rights to ordinary people, the Magna Carta did limit the king's powers of taxation and require trials before punishment. It was the first time that an English monarch came under the control of the law. – Magna Carta would become the source of important legal concepts found in our American Constitution and Bill of Rights. Among these are the principle of no taxation without representation and the right to a fair trial under law.

36. King Henry III (1216-1272) First child monarch since the Norman invasion of England in 1066. He was 9. None of his father's executors was present, and in the absence of a crown a simple golden band was placed on the young boy's head. In 1220, a second coronation was ordered by Pope Honorius III who did not consider that the first had been carried out in accordance with church rites. Wanted the return of more power given to the king. Formed the Council of Barons which would later become the Parliament.

37. King Edward I (1272-1307) Formed the House of Commons and the House of Lords Known as "Longshanks" for his extraordinary height. A strong-willed, militaristic king. As Edward exercised greater control over the barons, his popularity waned. To combat his falling popularity and to drum up support for his campaigns against Wales and Scotland, Edward united the country by attacking the Jews. In 1275, Edward issued the Statute of the Jewry, which imposed various restrictions upon the Jews of England; introduced to England the practice of requiring Jews to wear a yellow badge on their outer garments. In 1279, he arrested all the heads of Jewish households in England, and had around 300 of them executed in the Tower of London. Others were executed in their homes

38. King Edward II (1307-1327) First monarch to establish colleges in the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. Considered to be..."the first king who was not a man of business". His main interest was in entertainment, though he also took pleasure in athletics and mechanical crafts. He had been so dominated by his father that he had little confidence in himself. Scotland gained independence from England Poor harvests and livestock epidemics Forced to abdicate. Son (14) becomes king. Murdered – Red hot poker

39. King Edward III (1327-1377) One of the most successful English monarchs of the Middle Ages. Restoring royal authority after the disastrous reign of his father, Edward II. Transformed the Kingdom of England into the most efficient military power in Europe. His reign saw vital developments in legislature and government—in particular the evolution of the English parliament— as well as the ravages of the Black Death. He remained on the throne for 50 years; no English monarch had reigned for as long since Henry III, and none would again until George III. Began the 100-Years War with France…only permanent gain- Calais

40. Geoffrey Chaucer ( 1343 – October 25, 1400) “Father of English Poetry” – Chaucer is ranked as one of the greatest poets of the late Middle Ages He was admired for his philosophy as well as for his poetic talents Although he wrote many works, he is best remembered for his unfinished frame narrative The Canterbury Tales. Sometimes called the father of English literature, Chaucer is credited by some scholars as being the first author to demonstrate the artistic legitimacy of the vernacular English language, rather than French or Latin.

41. 14 th Century Times: moving away from Medieval Times Population: 2.5 million Small market towns – 150 persons each – Monasteries, churches, manor houses Travel was common; towns connected by stone-paved highways that were built during Roman times Medieval Times – Knights – Chivalry – Dark ages – Belief in the spiritual and the community, not the individual – Man had no right to think for himself – Church made decisions for man.

42. Chaucer Burial Crypt Poet’s Corner at Westminster Abbey

43. Richard II ( 1367-1400) Became king at the age of 10 During Richard's first years as king, government was in the hands of a series of councils. This was preferred over a regency led by the king's uncle, John of Gaunt, yet Gaunt remained highly influential. The first major challenge of the reign was the Peasants' Revolt in 1381, during which the young king comported himself well, and played a major part in suppressing the rebellion.

44. Richard to Henry IV 1387 control of government was taken over by a group of noblemen known as the Lords Appellant. 1389 Richard regained control, the next eight years governed in relative harmony. 1397, he took his revenge on the appellants, they were executed or exiled. Richard's rule was seen by many as tyrannous. 1399, John of Gaunt died, the king disinherited Gaunt's son, Henry of Bolingbroke. Henry invaded England in June 1399 with a small force that quickly grew in numbers. Meeting little resistance, he deposed Richard and had himself crowned as King Henry IV. Richard died in captivity early the next year; he was probably murdered.

45. The Plague The Black Death, or the Black Plague, was one of the deadliest pandemics in human history. The pandemic is thought to have begun in Central Asia or India and spread to Europe during the 1340s. The total number of deaths worldwide is estimated at 75 million people, approximately 25– 50 million of which occurred in Europe. The Black Death is estimated to have killed 30% to 60% of Europe's population. It may have reduced the world's population from an estimated 450 million to between 350 and 375 million in 1400. The 14th century eruption of the Black Death had a drastic effect on Europe's population, irrevocably changing the social structure. Cause: rats which thrived on the city filth Result: decline of the feudal system; serfs ran away from their masters to London and other cities.

46. Pictures

47. City Life and Social Conditions Castles and huge halls Elaborate food-cooked before huge fires by naked cooks Walls covered with tapestries – beauty vs ugliness Table manners – noisy; dogs; birds; screams

48. Booke of Courtesy Don’t pick nose or nails Don’t eat with a knife Don’t spit or retch too loud Don’t lick dishes with tongue Don’t spit on table Don’t clean teeth with the tablecloth Don’t wipe hands on cloth after blowing nose on it.

49. Lancasters vs Yorks Henry V – 1413-1422 Henry VI – 1422-1484 Edward IV – 1461-1483 Edward V - 1483-1483 Richard III – 1483 - 1485

50. Chivalry Knightly Conduct There are three points of view regarding chivalry: Military sense Social sense Religious sense History of Chivalry 1 st Period: The Crusades The crusader was the pattern of the perfect knight. His only objective was the rescue of the holy places of Palestine from Muslim domination and the defense of pilgrims. In return, the Church protected him, gave him spiritual privileges, such as the remission of all penances, dispensation from the secular courts and a tenth of all the Church revenues. The vow of the crusader was limited to a specified period. The average time was two to three years.

51. Chivalry Second Period: The Military Orders In these orders, there was the perfect fusion of the religious and the military spirit. The knightly vow bound with common ties warriors of every nation and condition, and enrolled them in a vast brotherhood of manners, ideals, and aims. Third Period:Secular Chivalry After the Crusades, chivalry gradually lost its religious aspect. Honor remained the worship of knighthood. This spirit is manifested in the knightly exploits between England and France during the Hundred Years War. The result was a useless shedding of blood, waste of money, and misery for the lower classes. Under the influence of the romances, love now became the mainspring of chivalry. As a consequence, there arose a new type of chevalier, vowed to the service of some noble lady, who could even be another man's wife. This idol of his heart was to be worshipped at a distance.

52. Chivalry Fourth Period: In its last stages, chivalry became a mere court service. The Order of the Garter, founded in 1348, by Edward III of England, the Order of the Golden Fleece of Philip of Burgundy, dating from 1430, formed a brotherhood, not of crusaders, but of courtiers, with no other aim than to contribute to the splendor of the sovereign. Their most serious business was the sport of jousts and tournaments. They made their vows not in chapels, but in banquet halls, not on the cross, but on some emblematic bird. The "vow of the Swan" of 1306, was instituted during the feast of the dubbing of the son of Edward I. It was before God and the swan that the king swore with his knights to avenge on Scotland the murder of his lieutenant.

53. Chivalry Literature which had in the past contributed to the exaltation of chivalry, now reacted against it. In the early part of the 14 th century, this turning point became evident in the poetry of Chaucer. The final blow was reserved for the immortal work of Cervantes, "Don Quixote," which aroused the laughter of all Europe. With the advent of gunpowder and the use of firearms in battle, chivalry rapidly disintegrated and finally disappeared altogether.

54. Trial By Ordeal Medieval Times God’s plan – peaceful Duty of people- keep it Reparation = money Punishment = deterrent Sinner – alive and able to repent (chopped off hands, feet, genitals) Guilt unclear – Hot iron Nine-yards Festers -guilty – Cold water Tied up and lowered into water on a rope Sank = innocent Floats = guilty – Battle Woman/man – Man buried up to his waist as a handicap

55. Trials Cold Water. The defendant would take a sip of holy water and then be thrown into a pool of water. If the water "accepted" her as pure (i.e., if she sank to the bottom), she was considered innocent of the charges. If she floated to the surface, she was considered guilty. (This technique has lead to the modern myth about if the defendant drowned she was considered innocent--but the surviving records suggest that court officials did not normally allow those who sank actually to drown.

56. Hot Water Court officials would heat a laundry cauldron to the boiling point, then throw a stone into the bottom. The plaintiff must pluck out the stone to prove his innocence. In serious cases, she must plunge in her arm up to the elbow.

57. Hot Iron The defendant would be required to pick up and carry a measure of iron weighing one pound after it had been heated over a fire. He would have to carry this nine feet, as measured by the length of his own foot. (Thus, adolescents would have to carry the heated metal less distance than a long-legged adult, and so on.) If the case involved a serious crime such as murder or betrayal of one's lord, the weight of the iron would be three pounds rather than one.

58. Host- Priest – Special Category A priest could prove his innocence by going before the altar and praying aloud that God would choke him if he were not telling the truth. Swallow the host. If he swallowed it easily with no visible sign of discomfort - supernatural proof of his innocence. If he choked or had difficulty swallowing, this was thought to be supernatural proof of his guilt or deceit. Possible psychosomatic component might cause a guilt- plagued priest to choke.

59. Medieval Numerology: the belief that particular numbers have mystical significance, a concept of key importance in the Jewish tradition of the Hebrew Bible (or, as Christians often call it, the Old Testament). Early Christians continued the tradition in the New Testament and in medieval literature. This is only a partial list of the meanings associated with important numbers. It does not give complete account for multiples such as 49 (7x7) or 144 (12x12), which were thought to have elaborate meanings. 1 – – God, Spiritual Unity, Creation, the First Age of the World 2 – – Adam and Eve, the creatures of the Ark, the two-fold nature of Christ (Christ as God and Man), the Flood, the Second Age of the World 3 – – The Trinity, the Heavens, Jonah (in the whale), Christ (in the tomb), three elements in man (body, reason, spirit), three elements of faith (knowledge, assent, confidence), three elements of repentance (contrition, confession, and satisfaction/absolution), the three Theological or Christian virtues (faith, hope, and charity), Abraham, the three Magi, three periods in time before the Law (Adam to Noah, to Abraham, to Moses), the Third Age of the World

60. 4 – – The four corners of the earth with its four winds, the physical elements of alchemy (earth, air, water, fire), the four bodily humors (blood, phlegm, black bile, yellow bile), the Evangelists, the Horsemen of the Apocalypse, the Four Cardinal or Pagan virtues (prudence, temperance, fortitude, justice), the Four Gospels, the four seasons, the four rivers of Paradise, the Four Blessings (Clarity, Impassivity, Knowledge, Delectation), the "Last Things" (death, judgment, Heaven, Hell), King David, the Fourth Age of the World. 5 – – The Flesh, the Physical Senses, sacrifice, the Five Wounds of Christ, the Wise Virgins (Matt. 25:1-13), the Old Law (Pentateuch), the five points of a star, the Babylonian Captivity, the number of zones in the world, the Fifth Age of the World. 6 – – The Incarnation, earthly imperfection, the sixth age of the world, the six days of labor before God rested.

61. 7- – Completeness, perfection, the Universe (4, the earth, and 3, the heavens), the day of rest after creation, the days of the week, the seven churches, the seven sorrows of Mary, the planets, the Sacraments, the Deadly Sins, the Seven Virtues (3 Theological Virtues + 4 Pagan virtues), the final days and end of the world, the seven trumpets and seven seals of the Apocalypse, the 7th age, seven petitions of the Lord's Prayer, seven journeys of Christ, seven parts of the mass, seven ages of man, seven last words of Christ, seven tones of a scale, the seven types of good works (and much more; seven is the most frequently-occurring of all the symbolic numbers). 8 – – The Resurrection, regeneration (seven days of creation plus following time of grace), eight souls in Noah's ark, the Last Judgment, Baptism, the Beatitudes, the Circumcision of Jesus

62. 9 – – The choirs of angel, the fruits of the Holy Spirit (love, joy, peace, patient endurance, gentleness, goodness, faith, meekness, temperance), mystery, 3x3: the triple trinity 10 – – Perfection and completion, the Ten Commandments, Order, and the lost tribes of Israel. (3x3+1) 11 – – The disciples between the death of Judas and the choice of Mathias, transition, conflict, martyrdom, excess (10+1), incontinence, sin 12 – – The twelve tribes of Israel, the twelve Prophets, the twelve Apostles, the gates of the New Jerusalem, heaven and earth (3X4), spirit penetrating matter (3x4), twelve parts of man, twelve articles of the Apostle's Creed, the zodiac, cosmic order, the months, the year

63. 13- – Thirteen attendants at the last supper, thirteen days for three kings' journey to the Christ child 24 – – Twenty-four elders seated around God's throne, Twenty-four hours of natural day, (many other complex interpretations based on 2x12, 3x8, 4x6, 10+8+6, 10x2+4, etc.) 30 – – Christ's age when he began to preach. 40 – – Forty days of Lent, Forty days of Moses on Mount Sinai, Forty days of Christ in the wilderness, Forty years to a generation, the years the Israelites wandered in the wilderness, the number of days and nights the flood covered the earth, the Old Testament law perfected with Christian Virtues, (4x10)

64. 49 (7x7) 72 – – The number of followers Jesus sent out into the world to preach during his ministry. 100 – – Completeness (10x10) 168 – – Hours of the week 248 - – Number of bones in the body. 666 – – Man's number, imperfection tripled. The number of the Beast in Revelations

65. Finally…. 1,000 – – Perfection, 1000 acts of the Devil 7,000 – – Universal perfection (perfection, 1000 x universality) 144,000 – – Number of the virgins in heaven. All of God's created people receiving spiritual blessing, (12x12x1000) = (Trinity x parts of the earth x apostles or tribes x perfection).