1. ISSUES OF CONTEXT TWO ANALYTICAL APPROACHES: 1. ETHNOGRAPHIC (SOCIOLINGUISTIC) 2. PRAGMATIC

2. CONTEXT AND CO-TEXT The term ‘context’ apparently has a limitless range of potentially relevant objects. We can understand the concept looking at it in an extensional way, i.e. enlarging the scope of the units we are looking at. This can be understood in two ways: The term ‘context’ apparently has a limitless range of potentially relevant objects. We can understand the concept looking at it in an extensional way, i.e. enlarging the scope of the units we are looking at. This can be understood in two ways: as extending the individual utterances making up the text = co-text; as extending the individual utterances making up the text = co-text; considering those utterances in their natural ‘habitat’. In this case we are dealing with the larger context in which people use language. considering those utterances in their natural ‘habitat’. In this case we are dealing with the larger context in which people use language.

3. THE ETHNOGRAPHIC (SOCIOLINGUISTIC APPROACH) The sociolinguist Dell Hymes (1964) puts forward a useful acronym, i.e SPEAKING, to cover the factors that must be taken into account when trying to describe what happens when people use language: The sociolinguist Dell Hymes (1964) puts forward a useful acronym, i.e SPEAKING, to cover the factors that must be taken into account when trying to describe what happens when people use language:

4. SPEAKING GRID S=the Setting and Scene of the exchange; the setting refers to the concrete physical circumstance in which speech takes place, e.g. courtrooms, classrooms, telephone conversations, passing acquaintances in the street, etc. The scene refers to the psychological and cultural circumstances of the speech situation, e.g. consulting, pleading, conferring. The settings and scenes do not necessarily remain constant throughout a particular language exchange, although it appears to be easier to shift scenes than to shift settings, e.g. a speaker’s attempt to tell a joke to dispel a tense atmosphere. S=the Setting and Scene of the exchange; the setting refers to the concrete physical circumstance in which speech takes place, e.g. courtrooms, classrooms, telephone conversations, passing acquaintances in the street, etc. The scene refers to the psychological and cultural circumstances of the speech situation, e.g. consulting, pleading, conferring. The settings and scenes do not necessarily remain constant throughout a particular language exchange, although it appears to be easier to shift scenes than to shift settings, e.g. a speaker’s attempt to tell a joke to dispel a tense atmosphere.

5. SPEAKING GRID P=the Participants may be of various kinds and may be referred to as Speaker, Hearer and audience, or Addressor, Addressee. P=the Participants may be of various kinds and may be referred to as Speaker, Hearer and audience, or Addressor, Addressee. E=Ends, i.e. the conventionally recognised and expected outcomes of an exchange as well as the personal goals that each of the P seeks to accomplish. Some speech events have conventional outcomes, e.g. ‘diagnosis’, ‘verdict’. E=Ends, i.e. the conventionally recognised and expected outcomes of an exchange as well as the personal goals that each of the P seeks to accomplish. Some speech events have conventional outcomes, e.g. ‘diagnosis’, ‘verdict’.

6. SPEAKING GRID A=Act sequence, i.e the actual language forms that are used, how these are used. It refers to message for, i.e. topics of conversation and particular ‘ways of speaking’. In a given culture, certain linguistic forms are conventional for certain types of talk. A=Act sequence, i.e the actual language forms that are used, how these are used. It refers to message for, i.e. topics of conversation and particular ‘ways of speaking’. In a given culture, certain linguistic forms are conventional for certain types of talk. K=Keys refers to the tone, manner in which a particular message is conveyed, e.g. light-hearted, serious, precise, etc. K=Keys refers to the tone, manner in which a particular message is conveyed, e.g. light-hearted, serious, precise, etc. I=Instrumentalities, i.e, the choice of channel: oral/written, general/specialised language, formal/informal I=Instrumentalities, i.e, the choice of channel: oral/written, general/specialised language, formal/informal

7. SPEAKING GRID N=Norms of interpretation, i.e.interpretation which would normally be expected for the speech event in question; norms of interaction, interpretation in relation to the conventions of the conversation (e.g. who usually talks, for how long) N=Norms of interpretation, i.e.interpretation which would normally be expected for the speech event in question; norms of interaction, interpretation in relation to the conventions of the conversation (e.g. who usually talks, for how long) G=the Genre that has to be recognised, e.g. novels, poems, lecture, advertisement, etc. G=the Genre that has to be recognised, e.g. novels, poems, lecture, advertisement, etc.

8. PRAGMATIC APPROACH ACTIVITY TYPE …a fuzzy category whose focal members are goal- defined, socially constituted, bounded, events with constraints on participants, setting, and soon, but above all on the kinds of allowable contributions. Paradigm examples would be teaching, a job interview, a jural interrogation, a football game, a task in a workshop, a dinner party and so on. …a fuzzy category whose focal members are goal- defined, socially constituted, bounded, events with constraints on participants, setting, and soon, but above all on the kinds of allowable contributions. Paradigm examples would be teaching, a job interview, a jural interrogation, a football game, a task in a workshop, a dinner party and so on. Because of the strict constraints on contributions to any particular activity, there are corresponding strong expectations about the functions that any utterance at a certain point in the proceedings can be fulfilling’[…] Activity types help to determine how one says will be ‘taken’ – that is, what kinds of inferences will be made from what is said.’ (Levinson, 1992:69) Because of the strict constraints on contributions to any particular activity, there are corresponding strong expectations about the functions that any utterance at a certain point in the proceedings can be fulfilling’[…] Activity types help to determine how one says will be ‘taken’ – that is, what kinds of inferences will be made from what is said.’ (Levinson, 1992:69)

9. CHECKLIST FOR DESCRIBING THE ACTIVITY TYPE The goals of the participants: notice that we are talking about the goals of the individuals rather than the goals of the whole speech event. The goals of one participant may be different from those of another. For example, the goal of a trial is to come up with a fair verdict, but the goals of the prosecution lawyer (to get a verdict ‘guilty’) are diametrically opposed to those of the defense lawyer and the defendant. An individual’s goals may also change during the course of an interaction. The goals of the participants: notice that we are talking about the goals of the individuals rather than the goals of the whole speech event. The goals of one participant may be different from those of another. For example, the goal of a trial is to come up with a fair verdict, but the goals of the prosecution lawyer (to get a verdict ‘guilty’) are diametrically opposed to those of the defense lawyer and the defendant. An individual’s goals may also change during the course of an interaction.

10. CHECKLIST Allowable contributions: some interactions are characterised by social or legal constraints on what the participants may say. For example, in courts of law the prosecution is not allowed to refer to a defendant’s previous convictions; in the British House of Commons members may not use certain abusive terms. What is pragmatically interesting is the way in which people will work round these restrictions. Coulthard (1989), for example, relates how one prosecution lawyer was able to indicate that the defendant had previous convictions by referring to the circumstances in which the defendant had injured his foot (it had been broken during a burglary); Churchill (prohibited from calling an opponent a ‘liar’), famously came up with the phrase ‘guilty of a terminological inexactitude’. Allowable contributions: some interactions are characterised by social or legal constraints on what the participants may say. For example, in courts of law the prosecution is not allowed to refer to a defendant’s previous convictions; in the British House of Commons members may not use certain abusive terms. What is pragmatically interesting is the way in which people will work round these restrictions. Coulthard (1989), for example, relates how one prosecution lawyer was able to indicate that the defendant had previous convictions by referring to the circumstances in which the defendant had injured his foot (it had been broken during a burglary); Churchill (prohibited from calling an opponent a ‘liar’), famously came up with the phrase ‘guilty of a terminological inexactitude’.

11. CHECKLIST The degree to which Gricean maxims are adhered to or suspended: the expectation of the way in which the maxims will be observed varies considerably from culture to culture and from activity type to activity type (e.g. in Parliament, in media interviews with politicians, or in the law courts, there is a very low expectation that what is said (or implied) will be the whole truth); in other activity types (such as going to a Confession) the expectation that the speaker will tell the whole truth is extremely high. Some inferences can only be drawn in relation to the activity type. For example, the actor Nigel Hawthorne, talking about unsuccessful plays he had been in before he became famous, said: The degree to which Gricean maxims are adhered to or suspended: the expectation of the way in which the maxims will be observed varies considerably from culture to culture and from activity type to activity type (e.g. in Parliament, in media interviews with politicians, or in the law courts, there is a very low expectation that what is said (or implied) will be the whole truth); in other activity types (such as going to a Confession) the expectation that the speaker will tell the whole truth is extremely high. Some inferences can only be drawn in relation to the activity type. For example, the actor Nigel Hawthorne, talking about unsuccessful plays he had been in before he became famous, said: ‘Friends would come backstage and talk about the weather’.

12. CHECKLIST Turn-taking and topic control: to what degree can an indvidual exploit turn- taking norms in order to control an interaction, establish his or her own agenda (topic of conversation), etc. Turn-taking and topic control: to what degree can an indvidual exploit turn- taking norms in order to control an interaction, establish his or her own agenda (topic of conversation), etc.