1. Cognitive maps What is a cognitive map? Example: rat in a maze

2. Cognitive maps manage knowledge of, and behavior in, space manipulable vs. non-manipulable space small vs. large spaces

3. Why study cognitive maps? Predicting spatial behavior stay or go, where to go, which route to take, choice of transport,... Learn effective strategies people use for learning about the environments for integrating environmental information with map-based information  educate other people, design better tools

4. Models of cognitive mapping

5. Perceptual schemata of spatial behavior Gibson 1979 Environmental features are perceived directly with little intervention of cognitive processes Person moving through a landscape has a vista vista changes gradually or abrubtly at transition points Models of cognitive mapping I

6. Cognitive mapping as information processing Kirk 1963, Downs 1970,... Separation of environment.. world of physical facts and behavior... and individual with a value system and decision making capability Individual receives information from the environment through ”filters”, the information then goes through value system and constraints, updates ”an image”, and is a basis for decisions Models of cognitive mapping II

7. Cognitive mapping as transactions Neisser 1976 Individuals searches, samples and interprets actual world for relevant information relevant = contributes to the individual’s plans for action searching, sampling and interpretation is based on anticipatory schema individuals may have several concurrent anticipatory schemas Models of cognitive mapping III

8. Computational Process Models Early example: Kuipers’ TOUR 1978 Computer simulation models spatial map (preprogrammed/perceived, static/dynamic) route planner (routes/subroutes are learnt/inferred) executor Some features of CPMs or whole CPMs have reflected beliefs about human cognitive maps There have been attempts to compare CPM performance and human performance Models of cognitive mapping IV

9. Connectionist Schema of Spatial Behavior From the late 1980s Non-symbolic information processing (ANNs) Connectionist models link (through hidden layer) discrete/fuzzy values of variables for example ”tall buildings” could be linked to ”lot of traffic” and to ”lot of noise” Models of cognitive mapping V

10. Inter-Representational Networks Haken and Portugali 1996 Related to transactional model Concentrates on the development of a cognitive map and how certain patterns become dominant Models of cognitive mapping VI

11. Learning and acquisition of cognitive maps compare to models of CMs: stimulus centered subject (individual) centered interaction centered

12. Learning of CMs Primary (direct) learning from experience / interaction with an environment Secondary (indirect) learning from maps, books, stories, etc Factors affecting learning

13. Primary learning What are the important features of spatial environment? Places, landmarks Paths Vista What are the important forms of spatial behavior? Being at a place Moving from one place to another (navigation) Looking around(?) Spatial database Series of vistas

14. Siegel and White 1975, Siegel 1977: 1. Landmarks are learnt 2. Actions are attached to landmarks 3. Patterns of landmarks + actions are encoded as routes 4. Clusters of landmarks and routes form ”minimaps” 5. Minimaps are related together and a configurational representation of the environment is achieved However, sometimes (adult) persons have been observed to learn configurational representation very rapidly. Primary learning

15. Anchor-point theory (Golledge 1978): individuals form a hierarchical structure of places Gärling et al 1981: routes are learnt first, landmarks are learnt as a sequence which forms the route Primary learning

16. Any feature of a place can be a landmark length of a street,... Primary learning

17. Distortions ”Tectonic plates” an anchor point and features associated with it are displaced as a whole ”Magnifying glass” well-known areas are ”stretched out” ”Magnet” the opposite of magnifying glass Primary learning

18. Environmental characteristics Barrier effect Impression of the environment to walkers, bicyclists, car drivers,... Complexity paradox: greater complexity makes environment feel larger because of detail but smaller because time passes faster more complex more prone to distortions cultural factors Primary learning

19. What makes a landmark a landmark? (Evans et al 1984) Number of persons moving in or around Clarity of contour Vertical height Complexity of the shape Extent of its use Uniqueness of its function Extent of its cultural importance Amount of physical maintenance Texture an color Naturalness of the landscaping Access Distinctiveness Primary learning

20. Legibility of urban space (Greene 1992) Usability Understandability Distinctiveness Appeal Primary learning

21. Secondary Learning Useful supplement to direct experience Only source of information for environments which cannot be experienced directly because of scale because of inaccesibility Lots of sources: formal education, self-study media, talking to others, games

22. Formal vs. informal Maps Use of maps is a skill Maps give (more accurate) configurational knowledge directly Secondary learning

23. Factors influencing learning and use of information Age Individual differences Personality Social and cultural background Education Gender differences Visual impairment Familiarity and experience Effort effects (e.g. travel time)

24. Structure and form of CMs

25. Mapping of physical elements to cognitive elements Golledge (1993): all elements of physical space have cognitive counterparts 1. individual occurrences of elements 2. grouping, connectivity and sequence of elements 3. classification of elements Structure and form of CMs

26. Spatial decision making and behavior Three levels of knowledge: 1. Declarative – ”database of spatial features” 2. Procedural – rules for action, based on declarative knowledge 3. Configurational – adds orientation to procedural knowledge – spatial learning is not necessarily in the order: 1,2,3! Structure and form of CMs

27. Reference systems Piaget et al (1956,1960): how do children learn spatial knowledge? in the order: topological, projective, Euclidean Egocentric frame of reference Fixed (landmark-based) frame of reference Global frame of reference Structure and form of CMs

28. Metrics time – distance instead of just distance distance from A to B is not necessarily the same as distance from B to A Structure and form of CMs

29. Structure of CMs Non-hierarchical (holistic) theories networks, each place may be stored more than once images Hierarchical theories strict  spatial relations are not explicitly encoded partial hierarchical structures have spatial relations  much experimental evidence Schemas people have abstract templates of generic cities, buildings, traffic systems etc Structure and form of CMs

30. Form of CMs verbal form non-hierarchically or hierarchically structured, or propositions image form people can construct images in mind people use many different strategies in completing tasks requiring CMs Structure and form of CMs

31. Expression of spatial knowledge image(map) form verbal form more similar to direct experience uses often fuzzy concepts three elements: object to be located, reference object, relationship Structure and form of CMs

32. Accessing and using spatial knowledge Information is recalled from long-term memory into working memory Smith et al (1982): working memory uses task-dependent frames whose slots access different knowledge bases in long-term memory (or are left empty) Spatial mental model is another name for a frame, which has knowledge in its slots and is in the working memory Structure and form of CMs

33. Spatial mental models The type of model constructed will depend on existing knowledge scale of the environment specfic task required detail People can switch between different model types Structure and form of CMs

34. Direction giving and spatial mental models (Couclelis 1996) 1. Initiation shared understanding of the request 2. Representation shared frame of reference, shared understanding of the route 3. Transformation shared model is transformed by direction giver to some concrete form 4. Symbolization communication and reinforcement 5. Termination Structure and form of CMs