1. Chapter 8
Memory

2. Memory and Its Processes
Memory - an active system that receives information from the senses, organizes and alters it as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information from storage.
Information-processing model - model of memory that assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages
Encoding - the set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert that information into a form that is usable in the brain’s storage systems.
Storage - holding onto information for some period of time.
Retrieval - getting information that is in storage into a form that can be used.

3. Atkinson-Shiffrin 3 Step Model
Sensory memory – brief recording of sensory information
Short-term memory – memory that holds few items briefly before info is forgotten
Working Memory- conscious, active processing of auditory and visual-spatial information and long term memory
Long –term memory – relatively permanent and limitless storage of memory.

4. Atkinson and Shiffrin

5. Encoding- Automatic Processing
Automatic Processing - tendency of certain kinds of information to enter long-term memory with little or no effortful encoding.
Space- a certain place where an item is located
Time- sequence of the days events
Frequency- how many times something occurs
Well-learned information- words
Parallel Processing- processing of many things simultaneously

6. Encoding- Effortful Processing
Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
Rehearsal- conscious Repetition
Herman Ebbinghaus- More times he practiced a list of nonsense syllables the fewer repetitions it took the next day
As rehearsal increases, relearning time decreases
Overlearning- additional rehearsal after we learn increases retention
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7. Ebbinghaus’s RehearsalCurve

8. Effortful Processing
Spacing Effect- we retain information when our rehearsal is distributed over time rather than cramming
Testing Effect- retention checks
Serial Position Effect- tend to remember the first and last items on a list
Primacy effect - tendency to remember information at the beginning of a body of information better than the information that follows.
Recency effect - tendency to remember information at the end of a body of information better than the information ahead of it.

9. Menu

10. Encoding for Meaning
Levels-of-processing model - model of memory that assumes information that is more “deeply processed,” or processed according to its meaning rather than just the sound or physical characteristics of the word or words, will be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time.
Shallow Processing- basic understanding; think a test in school
Maintenance Rehearsal- simple repetition as a means to encode what we were taught
We do not place meaning!
Deep Processing- adding meaning and making connections to information we are taking in
Elaborate Rehearsal- thinking about meanings or uses of some concept

11. How We Encode
Visual Encoding: the encoding of picture images. (mental picture)
Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words. (rhythm- fav. Song)
Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning. ( can you name the 7 dwarfs)
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12. Visual Encoding
Imagery – visual images help us remember concrete words (aided by semantic encoding
Rosy Retrospection – recalling high points, forgetting the worst
Mnemonic Devices – memory aids that use visual images and organizational devices
Peg word system – memorizing a jingle
Example: Name Game

13. Organizing Information for Encoding
Chunking - Organizing items into familiar, manageable units.
Acronym’s
HOMES
ROY G. BIV
GE ADDS GN????
Hierarchies – broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts
(Semantic Network Model)
Schemas- information tied to previous learned information

14. Menu

15. Storage Types of Memory- Atkinson Shiffrin Sensory Memory
Short- Term (Working) Memory
Long-Term Memory
Prospective vs. Retrospective Memory

16. Sensory Memory
Sensory (fleeting) memory - the very first stage of memory, the point at which information enters the nervous system through the sensory systems.
Iconic memory - visual sensory memory, lasting only a fraction of a second.
Capacity – everything that can be seen at one time.
Duration - information that has just entered iconic
memory will be pushed out very quickly by new information, a process called masking.
Eidetic imagery - the rare ability to access a visual memory for 30 seconds or more; “photographic memory”

17. Sensory memory
Echoic memory - the brief memory of something a person has just heard.
Capacity - limited to what can be heard at any one moment and is smaller than the capacity of iconic memory
Duration – lasts longer that iconic — about 2 to 4 seconds
What did I just say?

19. Short-Term Memory
Short-term memory (STM) (working memory) - the memory system in which information is held for brief periods of time while being used.
Selective attention – the ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input.
Conclusions are that the capacity of STM is about seven items or pieces of information, plus or minus two items, or from five to nine bits of information.
“magical number” = 7 + or – 2
Working Memory
conscious, active processing of auditory and visual-spatial information and long term memory
Duration: 30 sec. or less
Capacity: Limited

21. Long-Term Memory
Long-term memory (LTM) - the system of memory into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently.
Elaborative rehearsal - a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way.

22. Synaptic Changes
Aplysia- California sea slug responsible for our understanding of neural learning and synaptic strength
Classical Conditioning with water and shock
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)- increase in a synapses firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation
Increased release of serotonin at synaptic gaps
Stress Hormones- when released trigger the brain to think something important has happened
Amygdala produces more proteins for memory

23. Formation of LTMs
Engram - the physical change that takes place in the brain when a memory is formed.
Consolidation - the changes that take place in the structure and functioning of neurons when an engram is formed.
Prefrontal Cortex- responsible for habit forming actions

24. Implicit (nondeclarative) LTM
Implicit or Procedural (nondeclarative) memory - type of long-term memory including memory for skills, procedures, habits, and conditioned responses. These memories are not conscious but are implied to exist because they affect conscious behavior. CEREBELLUM
Shoot a basketball, ride a bike, tie shoes
Skills that people know how to do.
Also include emotional associations, habits, and simple conditioned reflexes that may or may not be in conscious awareness. ( like procedural memories)

25. Explicit (Declarative) LTM
Declarative memory – type of long-term memory containing information that is conscious and known (memory for facts). HIPPOCAMPUS
All the things that people know.
Semantic memory - type of declarative memory containing general knowledge, such as knowledge of language and information learned in formal education.
Episodic memory - type of declarative memory containing personal information not readily available to others, such as daily activities and events.
Flashbulb memory- detailed memories of emotionally charged events- death, wedding, birth, strong social /cultural event

26. Types of Long Term Memory

27. Prospective vs. Retrospective Memory
Prospective Memory- Remembering to perform intended actions in the future
Taking medication
Wishing someone happy birthday
Buying your significant other flowers
Half of everyday forgetting is due to prospective memory failures
Retrospective Memory- memory for people, events, or objects encountered or experienced in the past

28. Retrieval
Recall - type of memory retrieval in which the information to be retrieved must be “pulled” from memory with very few external cues.
fill-in-the blank test
Recognition - the ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact.
multiple-choice test
Retrieval failure – recall has failed (at least temporarily).
Tip of the tongue phenomenon.
Relearning- learning material for the second time, saves time

29. Cues to Help Remember Retrieval cue – a stimulus for remembering.
“Anchor Point”
Encoding specificity - the tendency for memory of information to be improved if related information (such as surroundings or physiological state) available when the memory is first formed is also available when the memory is being retrieved.
Priming- unconscious activation of associations in memory
State Dependent Memory
memories formed during a particular physiological or psychological state will be easier to recall while in a similar state.
Mood Congruent Memory
Recalling memories consistent with current mood
Context Dependent Memory
Recalling memories consistent with the same context

31. Déjà Vu
Déjà Vu means “I've experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience.

32. Daniel Schacter’s sevens sins of memory
Sins of Forgetting
Absent-mindedness
Transience- decay over time
Blocking
Sins of distortion
Misattribution- confusing the source
Suggestibility- misinformation
Bias
Sin of intrusion
Persistence- unwanted memories

33. Forgetting
Encoding failure - failure to process information into memory.
Memory trace - physical change in the brain that occurs when a memory is formed. (ENGRAM)
Storage Decay - loss of memory due to the passage of time, during which the memory trace is not used.
Disuse - another name for decay, assuming that memories that are not used will eventually decay and disappear.

34. Encoding Failure: Which is the correct penny?

35. Forgetting Hermann Ebbinghaus
Curve of forgetting - a graph showing a distinct pattern in which forgetting is very fast within the first hour after learning a list and then tapers off gradually at about 20-30%

36. Forgetting: Interference Theory
Proactive interference - memory retrieval problem that occurs when older information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of newer information. (forward-acting)
Retroactive interference - memory retrieval problem that occurs when newer information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of older information. (backward-acting)
Proactive interference – problem driving in England after learning in US.

37. LO 6.10 Different causes of forgetting
AP Principles of effective encoding, storage, and
construction of memories
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

38. LO 6.10 Different causes of forgetting
AP Principles of effective encoding, storage, and construction of memories

39. Interference
Stroop Effect- demonstration of the reaction time of a task and is often used to demonstrate the nature of automatic processing versus conscious visual control
When the meaning of a word and its color are congruent, such as the word "BLUE" written in blue color, it is easy to recognize the actual color of the word.
But when the meaning of the word is incongruent with the color, such as "BLUE" written in red color, it creates a conflict between the color and the word's meaning.
The "conflict" between two brain processes are word-recognition and color-recognition

40. Memory Retrieval Failure
Motivated Forgetting
People unknowingly revise their memories.
Repression
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
A defense mechanism that banishes painful memories from consciousness to minimize anxiety

41. Eyewitness Testimony Elizabeth Loftus study.
Showed that what people see and hear about an event after the fact can easily affect the accuracy of their memories of that event.
Framing of questions can alter responses.
Eye witness testimony not always reliable.
Admissible in court, but mistakes are made
False positive – error of recognition in which people think that they recognize some stimulus that is not actually in memory

42. Memory Retrieval Problems
Misinformation effect - the tendency of misleading information presented after an event to alter the memories of the event itself.
Constructive Memory - referring to the retrieval of memories in which those memories are altered, revised, or influenced by newer information.
Imagination Inflation- hadn’t experienced but now believe they have
Source Amnesia- we retain the memory of the event, but not of the context in which we acquired

43. Amnesia
Retrograde amnesia - loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past.
Anterograde amnesia - loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma forward, or the inability to form new long-term memories (“senile dementia”).
Infantile amnesia - the inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3.
Autobiographical memory - the memory for events and facts related to one’s personal life story (usually after age 3).

44. Alzheimer’s Disease
The primary memory difficulty in Alzheimer’s is anterograde amnesia, although retrograde amnesia can also occur as the disease progresses.
There are various drugs in use or in development for use in slowing or stopping the progression of Alzheimer’s disease.

45. Improving Memory Techniques
Study repeatedly
Make the material meaningful
Activate retrieval cues
Use mnemonic devices
Minimize interference
Sleep more
Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it and to help determine what you do not yet know