1. MEMORY

2. Outline Remembering Forgetting Powering up your memory Memory Stages
The content of Long-term memory
Reliably of Long-term memory
Forgetting
Theories about why we forget
Measuring what we can remember
Memory loss
Memory problems and medical conditions
Powering up your memory

3. Memory
Practically all of our daily activities (talking, understanding, reading, socializing) depend on our capacity to receive and stored information from our environment.
Allows us to retrieve events from the distant past or from moments ago.
Enables us to learn new skills and to form habits.
Without the ability to access past experiences or information, we would be unable to comprehend language, recognize our friends and family members, find our way home, or even tie a shoe.
Life would be a series of disconnected experiences, each one new and unfamiliar.

4. Memory Processes by which we encode, store, and retrieve information.
Encoding:
the initial perception and registration of information.
Storage:
the retention of encoded information over time.
Retrieval:
the processes involved in using stored information.
Whenever we successfully recall a prior experience, we must have encoded, stored, and retrieved information about the experience.

5. The Basic Process of Memory
InformationEncodingStorageRetrival

6. Memory Encoding We encode information in different ways:
Acoustically (coded by sound)
Visually (coded by mental pictures)
Semantically (coded by meaning)

7. Memory Storage Three-stage model
Sensory Memory
Retains an exact copy of what is seen (iconic) or heard (echoic).
It only lasts for a few seconds.
Information is lost or transferred to STM. 
Short-Term Memory (STM)
Store 7 + or – 2 bits of information for about sec.
Information need to be rehearsed.
Information is transferred to LTM or will be lost.
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
Relatively permanent storage.
Information is stored on the basis of meaning and importance.

8. Memory Storage Process
After entering sensory memory, a limited amount of information is transferred into short-term memory.
Within STM, there are three basic operations: 
Iconic memory - The ability to hold visual images.
Acoustic memory - The ability to hold sounds.
Working memory - An active process to keep information until it is put to use (a phone number you'll repeat to yourself until you can dial it on the phone).

9. Memory Retrieval
Some memories are retrieved effortless but others depend on the availability of:
Retrieval Cues.
Cues associated with the original learning that facilitate the retrieval of memories.
Context-dependent memory effect
Tendency for information to be better recalled in the same context in which it was originally learned.

10. Information Processing Model
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      

11. Content of LTM Procedural Memory Declarative Memory or Explicit Memory
Memory of how to do things.
Declarative Memory or Explicit Memory
Memory of fact and personal information.
Require conscious effort to bring it back to mind.
Examples:
We know that there are 50 States
We know that we attend MSC
Divide into:
Semantic Memory (memory of facts)
Episodic Memory (memory of personal experiences)
Can be:
Retrospective (memory of past experience)
Prospective (remembering to do something in the future)

12. Content of LTM

13. LTM: Preserving the Past
Consolidation
Process of converting STM into LTM
Elaborative Rehearsal
Process of transferring information from STM to LTM by consciously focusing on the meaning if the information.

14. Semantic Network Model
Information in LTM is stored in interrelated networks of schemas.
These form intricate knowledge structures.
Related schemas are linked together, and information that activates one schema also activates others that are closely linked.
This is how we recall relevant knowledge when similar information is presented.

16. Characteristics of LTM
LTM provides the framework to which we attach new knowledge.
The knowledge we store in LTM affects our perceptions of the world, and influences what information in the environment we attend to.
Our expectations regarding a particular experience influence how we interpret it. This is how we develop bias.

17. Reliability of LTM Constructionist Theory Memory Schema
Memory is not a replica of the past, but a reconstruction of the past.
Memory Schema
Organized knowledge such as a set of beliefs that reflects our past experiences and expectations of the future.

18. Confabulations Rely on Reconstruction Theory
Also known as False Memory
Rely on Reconstruction Theory
Confusion of imagination with memory.
Confusion of true memories with false memories.

19. Flashbulb Memories
Memories of extremely stressful or emotionally arousing personal or historical events.
May leave lasting and vivid memories.
May have inaccuracies or distortions.

20. Emotions and Memory PTSD : Memories that won’t go away
Depression: Recall mainly negative events
Anxiety: negatively affect memory in general
Stress: negatively affect memory in general

21. Theories of Forgetting
Decay Theory
Gradual fading of memories as a function of time.
Interference Theory
Disruption of memory caused by interference of previously learned material or newly learned material.
Retrieval Theory
Failure to access material stored in memory because of encoding failure or lack of retrieval cues.
Repression Theory
Motivated forgetting of anxiety-provoking material.

22. Measuring Memory Recall Tasks Recognition Tasks
Test of the ability to reproduce information held in memory with only minimal cues available
Remembering the phone number of a friend
Remembering the names of the 50 States
Recognition Tasks
Test of ability to recognize material held in memory
Recognizing the correct answer in a multiple choice test

23. Amnesia: The partial or complete loss of memory due to physiological or psychological causes
Retrograde Amnesia
Lost of memory of past events
For example:
Unable to remember details of car accident.
Anterogade Amnesia
Loss or impairment of the ability to form or store new memories.
Usually due to brain disorder person is unable to retain new information.

24. Psychogenic Amnesia
Results from a psychological cause as opposed to direct damage to the brain:
Dissociative Amnesia
inability to recall information, usually about stressful or traumatic events, such as a violent attack or rape.
Fuge/Dissociative Fugue
caused by psychological trauma and is usually temporary
Lacunar Amnesia
loss of memory about one specific event
Childhood Amnesia/Infantile Amnesia
inability to remember events from one's own childhood

25. Medical Conditions and Memory Problems
Hormonal imbalances
Thyroid disease
Cushing disease (overproduction of hormones by the adrenal gland)
Infectious diseases
AIDS
Neurosyphilis
Chronic meningitis
Tuberculosis

26. Medical Conditions and Memory Problems
Vitamin deficiencies (vitamin B1)
Korsakoff’s Syndrome due to:
Chronic alcoholism
Severe malnutrition
Traumatic Brain Injury/Brain Trauma
Neuro-degenerative Diseases
Alzheimer's Disease
Parkinson's Disease
Dementia

27. Medical Conditions and Memory Problems
Tumors of the frontal or temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex
Subdural hematoma (blood between the skull and the brain)
Hydrocephalia (excess fluid in the brain)

28. Powering up your Memory
Mnemonics (devises to improve memory)
Chunking
Acronyms
Rhymes
Visual imagery
Associating information with striking visual images.
Link system
Method of Loci

29. Practice: Chunking
C N N C I A J F K I B M D N A
CNN CIA JFK IBM DNA

30. Mnemonic: Acronyms Rainbow Colors: Roy G. Biv Red Orange Yellow Green
Blue
Indigo
Violet

31. Mnemonic: Acronyms
Homes
Huron
Ontario
Michigan
Erie
Superior

32. Mnemonic: Acronyms Depression Symptoms: BAD CRISES
Behavioral change (slowing down or agitation) Appetite change (weight loss or weight gain) Depressed look (looking down)
Concentration decrease
Ruminations (constant negative thoughts & hopelessness)
Interest (reduced interest in what is normally pleasurable) Sleep change (insomnia or hypersomnia) Energy change (fatigue) Suicidal ideations

33. Mnemonic: Rhymes Thirty days has November, April, June, and September,
Of twenty-eight only but one,
And all the remaining thirty-one.

34. Mnemonic: Link System
Remembering a list based by creating associations between elements of that list.
Remembering the following grocery list:
Milk: Picture a stream of milk being fired from a water gun
Eggs: Picture an egg wearing shoes
Butter: Picture sticks of butter growing from a tree
Bread: Picture a door made from bread
Catsup: Picture bees flying from a catsup bottle
Toilet paper: Imagine a roll of TP with angel wings
Soap: Picture a bar of soap on a plate
Batteries: Picture a mechanical hen that runs on batteries

35. Mnemonic: Method of Loci (Journey method)
Use to remember long list of items
Remembering based on physical locations
Familiar large places
Should be well lit
Should be set out in particular order
The more architectural elaboration the better
You can group items in a particular place

36. Preserving INFORMATION
Repetition or rehearsal
Organization
headings and subheadings
use of outlines to organize information
Meaningfulness
easier to remember things that are relevant to us
Imagery
visualizing or making a mental picture of the information

37. Strategies to Improve your Memory
Tell yourself, “pay attention; focus”
Take notes
Highlight the information that seems most important
Organize the information into natural groups
Create association links to information that you already know
Generate your own examples
Create visual images of the new information
Create diagrams or flow charts of the information
Think about how you might apply this information
Repeat the information
Summarize and review the information
Speak the information out loud
Tell or explain it to some other person
Test yourself on the information
Take in reasonably small amounts of information at a time