1. Introduction to Research Deny A. Kwary Airlangga University www.kwary.net

2. A research can be undertaken for two different purposes: 1.To solve a currently existing problem (applied research) 2.To contribute to the general body of knowledge in a particular area of interest (basic/fundamental research)

3. Ways to select a topic Personal experience Personal experience Curiosity based on something in the media Curiosity based on something in the media The state of knowledge in a field The state of knowledge in a field Social premiums Social premiums Personal values Personal values

4. Major Limitations in Conducting a Research Time Costs Access to resources Approval by authorities Ethical concerns Expertise

5. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Methodological Assumption (Cresswell 1994: 5) QuantitativeQualitative Deductive process Inductive process Cause and effect Mutual simultaneous shaping of factors Static design – categories isolated before study Emerging design – categories identified during research process Generalization leading to prediction, explanation, and understanding Patterns, theories developed for understanding Accurate and reliable through validity and reliability Accurate and reliable through verification

6. Six assumptions of qualitative designs (Merriam 1988: 19-20) 1.Q ualitative researchers are concerned primarily with process, rather than outcomes or products. 2.Q ualitative researchers are interested in meaning. 3.T he qualitative researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis. Data are mediated through this human instrument, rather than through inventories, questionnaires, or machines. 4.Q ualitative research involves fieldwork. The researcher physically goes to the people setting, site, or institution to observe or record behavior in its natural setting. 5.Q ualitative research is descriptive in that the researcher in interested in process, meaning and understanding gained through words or pictures. 6.T he process of qualitative research is inductive in that the researcher builds abstractions, concepts, hypotheses, and theories from details.

7. Quantitative Methods Quantitative Descriptive Quantitative Descriptive Descriptive statistics: graphical and numerical techniques for summarizing data. Descriptive statistics: graphical and numerical techniques for summarizing data. Quantitative Analytic Quantitative Analytic Inferential statistics: procedures for making generalizations about characteristics of a population based on information obtained from a sample taken from that population Inferential statistics: procedures for making generalizations about characteristics of a population based on information obtained from a sample taken from that population

8. Population, Sample, Respondent, Informant, Corpus Population: any set of individuals (or objects) having some common observable characteristics. Sample: the subset of a population which represents the characteristics of the population. A sample consists of respondents or subjects An informant: a person from whom a linguist obtains information about language, dialect, or culture. A corpus is a collection of written or spoken material.

9. Types of Sampling Probability Non-probability Simple Random Stratified Random Cluster Random Systematic Random Convenience Judgement / Purposive Quota Snowball