1. Contrastive linguistics: an introduction
Tadeusz Piotrowski

2. Contrastive linguistics: what is it?
Contrastive linguistics is the systematic comparison of two or more languages,
with the aim of describing their similarities and differences,
focusing, however, on differences,
it is predominantly practical.
The term “contrastive linguistics”
was used for the first time by Whorf in 1941.

3. Basics Form Prerequisites lecture attendance required
knowledge of basic linguistic notions

4. Textbooks Fisiak J., Lipińska-Grzegorek M., Zabrocki T., 1978/1987.
An Introductory English-Polish Contrastive Grammar
Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe
Krzeszowski T.P., 1984.
Gramatyka angielska dla Polaków.
PWN. Warszawa
Willim,E. and Mańczak-Wohlfeld,E., 1997.
A contrastive approach to problems with English.
Kraków: PWN.

5. CL and linguistics general linguistics theory of linguistics
similarities in languages
what is common to all languages in the world
comparative linguistics
differences between languages
typology of languages
aiming at classification of all languages in the world
synchronic or
diachronic

6. CL and comparative linguistics
contrastive linguistics (CL)
differences (and similarities) between two (usually) languages

7. contrastive linguistics
differences (usually) between two (usually) languages
basis for typological description
mainly practical applications
translation
foreign language teaching and learning
bilingual lexicography (dictionaries)
why differences?
it is assumed that the two languages are similar except for the points described as different

8. CL in linguistics the languages being compared can be related
Polish and English
or can be unrelated
like Polish and Chinese
can be from the same historical period
Polish and English in the 20th c.
or can be from different historical periods
English and Polish from the 16th and the 20th c.

9. CL in linguistics usually, however,
CL is synchronic comparative linguistics
without the historical dimension
CL can be
theoretical
applied

10. theoretical CL
gives an exhaustive account of the differences and similarities between two or more languages,
provides an adequate model for their comparison.

11. applied CL on the basis of the theoretical framework
provided by theoretical CA/CS,
gives the researcher the information necessary
to conduct actual contrastive analyses.

12. CL: terms contrastive linguistics (or its methods) is also called
contrastive studies
contrastive analysis
interlingual linguistics

13. the rationale for studying CL
who:
prospective teachers of a foreign language

14. CL and a FL teacher
why:
contrastive studies are (were) used as a means of predicting and/or
explaining difficulties of second language learners
with a particular mother tongue (Polish)
in learning a particular target language (English)
however, CL does not explain all problems of foreign language students

15. CL and a FL teacher
other hypotheses to explain the problems in learning/teaching a foreign language
error analysis
performance analysis
interlanguage studies
language awareness studies
these belong to applied linguistics
foreign language learnign/teaching methodology

16. advantages it is suggested that
when FL learners are made aware of L1:L2 contrasts
this makes it easier for them
to learn difficult FL structures
L1 interference accounts for some 30% of error.

17. what to compare
early contrastive studies focused on microlinguistic analysis
phonology/phonetics
grammar (syntax, inflection)
lexis
today there are also
contrastive pragmatics
cross-cultural/intercultural pragmatics
contrastive rhetoric

18. what to compare microlinguistic analysis: examples
What are the consonant phonemes in languages X and Y?
How do they differ in inventory, realization, and distribution?
What is the tense system of languages X and Y?
What are the verbs of saying in languages X and Y?

19. what to compare pragmatic analysis: examples
How is cohesion expressed in languages X and Y?
How are the speech acts of apologizing and requesting expressed in languages X and Y?
How are conversations opened and closed in languages X and Y?

20. this course mainly practical basic theoretical notions
a review of microlinguistic contrasts

21. how to compare? what is the basis for comparison?
comparison of seemingly related phenomena:
“to compare them would be tantamount to putting ten-ton lorries and banana skins in the same class on the grounds that neither ought to be left on footpaths”.
Carl James (1980). Contrastive Analysis. London: Longman, p :167

22. how to compare? object A object B
either have something in common
and we can compare them
or do not have anything in common
and we cannot compare them
it is arguably difficult to find objects that do not have anything in common
but:
God and ...

23. how to compare? that something in common is not A is not B is C
C is called Tertium Comparationis (TC)

24. Tertium Comparationis
what is common in comparison between languages
is probably the meaning of a pair of sentences,
in other words,
their translation equivalence

25. translation equivalence
there is one big problem CL
studies the systems of two languages
translation is not about systems
it is about texts
this is a basic distinction in linguistics
system and text
langue and parole
competence and performance

26. translation equivalence
text translation
translation of a particular sentence depends
on other sentences around it (context)
on the function of the whole text
its stylistic level
the user of the text
system translation
translation of sentences without any context
though the most probable one is used

27. translation equivalence
Eng.:
I loved you.
Pol.:
Kochałem
kochałam
kochałom
cię
ciebie
was
Panów
Panie
Państwa

28. kochałom: an example
„...to chybam ja się przesuwało dalej i wchodziło w krąg następnego spojrzenia... w miarę postępów [mej wędrówki] powiększałom się i rozpoznawałom siebie...”
Stanisław Lem Maska

29. system and text equivalence
that is why
system equivalence can be called
correspondence
text equivalence can be called
equivalence

30. Equivalence/Tertium Comparationis
What is, in fact, equivalence?
we know it is based on a Tertium Comparationis
but what use as a TC?

31. TC: requirements TC should be external to both languages usable
a category based on one language has no counterpart
usable
for teachers: can be used without extensive theoretical studies

32. TC in lexical equivalence
concept
(word) sign referent (object)

33. TC in lexical equivalence
Either referents or concepts can be treated as TCs.
We can reject referents as a TC because,
there are no pure references,
the very act of distinguishing a referent depends to a large degree on the relevant language
Engl. finger Pol. palec

34. TC in lexical equivalence
Concepts can be also rejected.
They are not suitably external to any language
an English word has an English meaning
a Polish word has a Polish meaning
They are theoretical constructs depending on a language.
Other views.

35. TC TC should be external to the two languages language use?
but it should include them
language use?
situation of use of both languages
translation is used in situations when both language are used

36. situations "How meaning X is expressed in L1 and L2?„
This is a question based on meaning.
This question goes from the vague notion of meaning,
about which there is little theoretical agreement,
goes to two unknowns:
L1 and L2 items.
We can say that we have to do with three unknown objects here.

37. situations
How else can one find similarities/contrasts in meaning between two languages?
"In the situation S, when an expression X is used by the L2 speaker to speak of Z, what would be the most natural expression Y used by the L1 speaker?".
This does not depend on any theoretical assumptions.
it includes two known entities (S and X), which are used to reach the third entity (Y).
Competent bilinguals can easily answer such questions.

38. Situations Situations are either typical of L1 or of L2,
and linguistic expressions are included in the situations, not vice versa.
Situations, in turn, cannot be separated from wider contexts,
ultimately from the context of culture.

39. Situations-applicability
Lyons (1977). Semantics. CUP.
a particular lexeme (or expression, or whole utterance) is applicable (i.e. may be correctly applied) in a certain context, situational or linguistic ...;
it is applicable to individuals or properties of individuals.
We may use the term 'applicability', in fact, for any relation that can be established between elements or units of language ... and entities in, or aspects of, the world in which the language operates.

40. Equivalence: other types
Tomasz Krzeszowski
statistical equivalence
system equivalence
semanto-syntactic equivalence
rule equivalence
pragmatic equivalence