1. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Chapter 9 Psychological Development Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images Any rental, lease or lending of the program. ISBN: 0-131-73180-7

2. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Developmental Psychology Developmental psychology – The study of how organisms change over time as the result of biological and environmental influences Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

3. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 How Do Psychologists Explain Development? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Development is a process of growth and change brought about by an interaction of heredity and the environment

4. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 The Nature-Nurture Interaction Nature-nurture issue – Long-standing discussion over relative importance of nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) in their influence on behavior and mental processes Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

5. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 The Nature-Nurture Interaction Twin studies – Developmental investigations in which twins, especially identical twins, are compared in the search for genetic and environmental effects Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

6. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 The Nature-Nurture Interaction Identical twins– A pair who started life as a single fertilized egg which later split into two distinct individuals Fraternal twins– A pair who started life as two separate fertilized eggs that happened to share the same womb Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

7. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 The Nature-Nurture Interaction Adoption studies – Studies in which the adopted child’s characteristics are compared to those of the biological family and the adoptive family Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

8. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Gradual versus Abrupt Change Continuity View: the perspective that development is gradual and continuous- as opposed to the discontinuity view. Discontinuity view: the Perspective that development proceeds in an uneven (discontinuous) fashion-as opposed to continuous. ( a series of steps or stages) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

9. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Gradual versus Abrupt Change Continuity view vs. Discontinuity view Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Age Performance Continuity view Discontinuity view

10. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Gradual versus Abrupt Change Developmental stages – Periods of life initiated by significant transitions or changes in physical or psychological functioning Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

11. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Psychological Traits in Your Genes While psychological traits are formed by interaction of heredity and the environment, many traits have a strong genetic influence Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

12. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 What Capabilities Does the Child Possess? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Newborns have innate abilities for finding nourishment, interacting with others, and avoiding harmful situations; the developing abilities of infants and children rely on learning

13. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Prenatal Development Prenatal period – The developmental period before birth (conception to birth) Zygote (fertilized egg) Embryo (developing organism during the 1 st 8 weeks of life) Fetus (after about 8 weeks) Placenta – An organ that develops between the embryo/fetus and the mother Teratogens – Toxic substances that can damage the developing organism (nicotine, alcohol, virus like AIDS) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

14. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Neonatal Period (from birth to one month) Sensory abilities-can respond to stimulation from all of their senses. Motor abilities-provide a platform for later development. –Postural reflex –Grasping reflex Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

15. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Infancy Brain focusing on branching. Axons and dendrites grow and connect increasing the neural tissue in the brain. (50% in the 1 st 2 years). By 4 years of age, brain has doubled in size. Synaptic Pruning: Connections in the brain that are not used are lost. Stimulation is necessary to make them permanent and functional. Post natal brain growth: by 11 years of age the brain attains its ultimate mass. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

16. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Infancy Learning: Babies learn through classical conditioning (one event signals another like with Pavlov’s dogs) Newborns were taught to anticipate sweet sensations by first stroking the babies foreheads then giving them sugar water. Social skills development: Use learning to expand social interactions: -mother’s voice -crying gets attention Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

17. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Social Abilities Infants are built for social interaction! Close coordination between the gazing, vocalizing, touching and smiling of mothers and their infants. Facial interactions reveal how feeling of and infants are coordinated Face Experiment with Edward Tronick.Face Experiment with Edward Tronick Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

18. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Attachment Attachment: the enduring social- emotional relationships between a child and parent or other regular caregiver Lays the foundation for all other relationships! Imprinting: A primitive form of learning in which some young animals follow the first moving object they see and hear. (Konrod Lorenz) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

19. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Attachment Humans apparently have an inborn need for attachment Secure attachment-felt safe, close to moms, more independent. Anxious-ambivalent attachment-clingy, showed fear and anger when separated. Avoidant attachment-indifferent to mothers, avoid intimacy. –Strange Situation- Mary Ainsworth –Attachment StylesAttachment Styles Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

20. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Contact Comfort Cupboard theory: Infants become attached to those who provide the food supply. Harry and Margaret Harlow challenged it using infant monkey’s. They concluded that infants need contact comfort to survive. Contact comfort: Stimulation and reassurance derived from the physical touch of a caregiver. Harry Harlowe Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

21. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Infancy (from one month to about 18 months) Maturation – The unfolding of genetically programmed processes of growth and development over time (sitting, crawling and walking) Interaction with environment Saltation: discontinuous bursts in infants. (growth spurts) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

22. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Birth

23. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Responds to soundResponds to sound Becomes quiet when picked upBecomes quiet when picked up Vocalizes occasionallyVocalizes occasionally Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Birth 1 mo.

24. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Smiles sociallySmiles socially Recognizes motherRecognizes mother Rolls from side to backRolls from side to back Lifts head and holds it erect and steadyLifts head and holds it erect and steady Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Birth1 mo. 2 mo.

25. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Vocalizes to the smiles and talk of an adultVocalizes to the smiles and talk of an adult Searches for source of soundSearches for source of sound Sits with support, head steadySits with support, head steady Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Birth1 mo.2 mo. 3 mo.

26. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Gaze follows dangling ring, vanishing spoon, and ball moved across tableGaze follows dangling ring, vanishing spoon, and ball moved across table Sits with slight supportSits with slight support Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo. 4 mo.

27. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Discriminates strangers from familiar personsDiscriminates strangers from familiar persons Turns from back to sideTurns from back to side Makes distinctive vocalizationsMakes distinctive vocalizations Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo. 5 mo.

28. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Lifts cup and bangs itLifts cup and bangs it Smiles at mirror imageSmiles at mirror image Reaches for small objectReaches for small object Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo.5 mo. 6 mo.

29. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Makes playful responses to mirrorMakes playful responses to mirror Sits alone steadilySits alone steadily CrawlsCrawls Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo.5 mo.6 mo. 7 mo.

30. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Vocalizes up to four different syllablesVocalizes up to four different syllables Listens selectively to familiar wordsListens selectively to familiar words Pulls to standing positionPulls to standing position Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo.5 mo.6 mo. 7 mo. 8 mo.

31. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo.5 mo.6 mo. 7 mo.8 mo. 9 mo.

32. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Plays pat-a- cakePlays pat-a- cake Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo.5 mo.6 mo. 7 mo.8 mo.9 mo. 10 mo.

33. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Stands aloneStands alone Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo.5 mo.6 mo. 7 mo.8 mo.9 mo.10 mo. 11 mo.

34. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Maturation Timetable for Locomotion Walks aloneWalks alone Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Birth1 mo.2 mo.3 mo.4 mo.5 mo.6 mo. 7 mo.8 mo.9 mo.10 mo.11 mo. 1 year

35. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 What Are the Developmental Tasks of Infancy and Childhood? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Infants and children face especially important developmental tasks in the areas of cognition and social relationships – tasks that lay a foundation for further growth in adolescence and adulthood

36. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Cognitive Development Cognitive development – The process by which thinking changes over time Schemas – Mental structures or programs that guide a developing child’s thoughts. They form and change as we grow and develop. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

37. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Cognitive Development Assimilation – Mental process that modifies new information to fit it into existing schemes Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Accommodation – Mental process that restructures existing schemes so that new information is better understood

38. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational

39. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational Birth to about age 2 Child relies heavily on innate motor responses to stimuli Sensorimotor intelligence Mental representations Object permanence

40. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational About age 2 to age 6 or 7 Marked by well- developed mental representation and the use of language Egocentrism Animalistic thinking Centration

41. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational About age 7 to about age 11 Child understands conservation but is incapable of abstract thought Conservation Mental operations

42. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational From about age 12 on Abstract thought appears

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45. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Beyond Piaget Other perspectives suggests that transitions from one stage to another is more continuous. Kids are more “intellectually sophisticated” than Piaget thought. Not as rigid but more flexible May be due to inability to express thoughts; they may actually understand but have trouble saying it. Piaget review Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

46. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Social and Emotional Development Theory of Mind – An awareness that other people’s behavior may be influenced by beliefs, desires, and emotions that differ from one’s own Temperament – An individual’s characteristic manner of behavior or reaction Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

47. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Social and Emotional Development Zone of proximal development – The difference between what a child can do with help and what the child can do without any help or guidance Socialization – The lifelong process of shaping an individual’s behavior patterns, values, standards, skills, attitudes and motives to conform to those regarded as desirable in a particular society Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

48. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Social and Emotional Development Most approaches to child rearing fall into one of the following four styles: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 1.Authoritarian parents 2.Authoritative parents 3.Permissive parents 4.Uninvolved parents

49. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Social and Emotional Development Other factors influencing a child’s development may include: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Effects of day care School influences Leisure influences

50. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Age/Period Principal Challenge 0 to 1 1/2 years Trust vs. mistrust 1 1/2 to 3 years Autonomy vs. self doubt 3 to 6 years Initiative vs. guilt 6 years to puberty Confidence vs. inferiority Adolescence Identity vs. role confusion Early adulthood Intimacy vs. isolation Middle adulthood Generativity vs. stagnation Late adulthood Ego-integrity vs. despair

51. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 What Changes Mark the Transition of Adolescence? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Adolescence offers new developmental challenges growing out of physical changes, cognitive changes, and socioemotional changes

52. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 The Transitions of Adolescence Adolescence – Developmental period beginning at puberty and ending at adulthood Rites of passage – Social rituals that mark the transition between developmental stages, especially between childhood and adulthood Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

53. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Physical Maturation in Adolescence Puberty – Onset of sexual maturity; ability to reproduce Around puberty, boys and girls become more aware of their physical attractiveness Primary Sex characteristics: sex organs and genitals. Secondary sex characteristics: growth of breasts, deepening of voice for males, wider hips for girls etc. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

54. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Primary task of adolescence is to accept one’s body image which is tied to physical development. Cultural influences play a major part in a teen’s self esteem and self concept. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

55. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Cognitive Development in Adolescence Formal operational stage – Piaget’s final stage of cognitive growth (abstract and complex thought) Hormones rise to high levels The frontal lobes undergo a “remodel” This leads to sensation seeking and risk taking, and preoccupation with body image and sex Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

56. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Social Identity in Adolescence Identity crisis Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The increasing influence of peers Common social problems in adolescence Delinquency

57. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Sexual Issues in Adolescence Sexual issues in adolescence often include the following: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Masturbation Same-sex orientation Heterosexual behavior

58. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning I. Preconventional morality –Stage 1: Pleasure/pain orientation –Stage 2: Cost/benefit orientation; reciprocity Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

59. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning II. Conventional morality Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Stage 3: “Good child” orientation Stage 4: Law-and-order orientation

60. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning III. Postconventional (principled) morality Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Stage 5: Social contract orientation Stage 6: Ethical principle orientation

61. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning Culture and morality Gender and morality Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

62. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 What Developmental Challenges Do Adults Face? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Nature and nurture continue to produce changes throughout life, but in adulthood these changes include both growth and decline

63. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 The Developmental Challenges of Adulthood Love and work –Intimacy versus isolation –Generativity versus stagnation –Generativity – A process of making a commitment beyond oneself to family, work, society, or future generations Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

64. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 The Last Developmental Problems You Will Face Ego-identity – The ability to look back on life without regrets and to enjoy a sense of wholeness According to Erikson, the final crisis involves ego-identity vs. despair Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

65. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 The Last Developmental Problems You Will Face Some of the most obvious changes that occur with age affect physical abilities such as Vision Hearing Thinking, learning, and problem solving Memory Sexual functioning Social interaction Emotions Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

66. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 End of Chapter 9 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007