1. Is gender socially constructed or is it something that we ‘do’?
lecture 2

2. last week … summary historical studies – e.g. medical texts
more similarities than differences between men and women?
why focus on differences?
the ‘sexes’ may not be as distinct as we might think – ‘five sexes’?

3. continued … idea of biological ‘facts’ as determining behaviour recent
debates about what ‘really’ defines sex
see examples and discussions about intersex case studies in:
Kessler & McKenna (1978); Butler (1990); Harrison & Hood-Williams (2002); Garfinkel (1967) and Hird (2000)
intersex cases can help us understand gender as a constant achievement – is gender something we ‘do’?

4. lecture outline (1) ‘gender’ as a term
social construction of gender and gender socialisation
critique of ‘essentialism’
problems with sex-gender distinction?
constructing masculinities (Connell)

5. lecture outline (2) crisis in gender order? (Connell)
gender display? (Goffman)
‘doing’ gender? (West & Zimmerman)
‘gender attribution’ (Kessler & McKenna)
summary

6. ‘gender’ Gatens in Gunew 1991; Oakley 1997; Jackson in Jackson & Jones 1998
Freud (1905) & psychological research 1930s
Robert Stoller published ‘Sex and Gender’ in 1968
hermaphrodite/ adrenogenital syndrome

7. social construction of gender (1) Jackson in Jackson & Jones 1998; Pilcher & Whelehan 2004
‘gender’ and ‘sex’ commonly used by feminists 1970s
e.g. Ann Oakley (1972)
‘Sex, Gender and Society’
gender stereotypes

8. gender stereotypes e.g. Masculinity assertive rational strong active
competitive
unemotional
(culture)
Femininity
submissive
intuitive
weak
passive
cooperative
emotional
(nature)

9. gender: power and inequality
not just about differences
hierarchically organised and valued
e.g. men and masculinity privileged over women and femininity?
POWER and INEQUALITY?
(‘patriarchy’)

10. Simone de Beauvoir (1949: 295)
‘One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman’
gender differences in hierarchical opposition – women as ‘Other’ ?
feminists challenge the idea that ‘biology is destiny’

11. social construction of gender (2)
gender learned through socialisation
(Oakley: ) – 4 processes
1. manipulation- e.g. fuss over appearance
2. canalisation – e.g. sex-typed objects - toys
3. verbal appellation – e.g. ‘bad boy’
4. activity exposure – e.g. domestic chores
operates through social institutions
e.g. school, work, especially the ‘family’

12. social construction of gender (3) Jackson in Jackson & Jones 1998; Howson 2004
critique of ‘essentialism’
disputes that social roles naturally determined and fixed
masculinity and femininity historically and culturally variable
e.g. Mead; and ‘berdache’

13. ‘problematising the sex-gender distinction’ Jackson 1998; Gatens 1991; Butler 1990; Harrison & Hood-Williams 2002; Howson 2004
assume ‘sex’ is biological and ahistorical?
gender ‘mapped’ onto neutral bodies?
does female = feminine/male = masculine?
role of the body in the social construction of gender – disrupt and /or maintain boundaries between femininity and masculinity?

14. constructing masculinities
constructing masculinities? (1) Connell 1987, 1995; Pilcher & Whelehan 2004; Howson 2004
since 1980s research into this area
‘gender as a structure of social practice’ – ‘gender projects’
masculinity constructed in relation to what it is not, especially but not only femininity
life course, discourses and institutions – intersect?

15. constructing masculinities
constructing masculinities? (2) Connell 1987, 1995; Pilcher & Whelehan 2004; Howson 2004
hierarchy of masculinities (and femininities)
hegemonic masculinity - dominant cultural ideal
complicit masculinity – gain advantages from cultural ideal
subordinated masculinity – homosexual men
femininities – bottom of the gender hierarchy

16. ‘crisis tendencies’ in current gender order? Connell 1995
challenges to hegemonic masculinity?
- unemployed working class young men – ‘breadwinner’
- middle class – new technical occupations – lack authority
- men in the environmental movement – pro-feminist
- gay men – not heterosexual

17. gender display (1) Goffman 1979: Harrison & Hood-Williams 2002; West Zimmerman 1998[1987]; Smith 1996
body idiom
‘if gender be defined as the culturally established correlates of sex (whether in consequence of biology or learning), then gender display refers to conventionalized portrayals of these correlates’
(Goffman 1979: 1)

18. gender display (2) Goffman 1979: Harrison & Hood-Williams 2002; West Zimmerman 1998 [1987]; Smith 1996
gender is not a reflection of ‘essential nature’ but is made to appear so?
gender differentiation – produced and reproduced in interaction?
enact culturally appropriate idealised performances of femininity and masculinity?
gender socially scripted?

19. ‘doing’ gender? (1) West & Zimmerman 1998 [1987]; Garfinkel 1967; Kessler & McKenna 1978
critical of Goffman – for them gender is a routine ‘done’ in everyday interaction
ethnomethodological approach
‘gender as an accomplishment’ – and situated doing?

20. need to distinguish between:
‘doing’ gender? (2) West & Zimmerman 1998 [1987]; Garfinkel 1967; Kessler & McKenna 1978
need to distinguish between:
‘sex’ (biological criteria) – can’t see
‘sex category’ – (what classified as)
– look the part
‘gender’ – (how manage classification) – acting the part

21. ‘doing’ gender(3) see e.g. Kessler and McKenna (1978)
‘gender construction in everyday life: transsexualism’
‘natural attitude’ in terms of gender
‘gender attribution’
genitals – ‘essential sign’?

22. ‘doing’ gender? (4) West & Zimmerman 1998 [1987]; Garfinkel 1967; Kessler & McKenna 1978; Tyler & Abbott 1998
refer to ‘Agnes’ – ‘passing’?
‘sex category’ and ‘gender’ are ‘managed properties’?
gender assessment – accountability
e.g. female flight attendants ‘doing’ gender – weight, make-up, ‘emotional labour’

23. summary (1) socialisation – emphasis on nurture not nature
what happens to bodies?
contradictory gender meanings?
how does diversity amongst women/men occur? – Connell tries to account for these?

24. summary (2) gender display – do we follow ‘scripts’?
is gender something we ‘do’?
is it simply a display in interaction?
does it involve work? – more for women?
how do we know the routine? conscious?
is it possible not to ‘do’ gender?

25. outline key theoretical approaches to understanding gender.
next week …
outline key theoretical approaches to understanding gender.
map the theoretical shift from material aspects of gender to cultural representations of gender