1. RESEARCH METHOD By
Abuzar Asra

2. STEP 6: ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN
SESSION 5
STEP 6: ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN
(Chapter 6 of Sekaran, 2000; Selltiz, 1976)

3. ISSUES IN RESEARCH DESIGN
Purpose for the study
Type of study/investigation
Extent of researcher interference
Unit of analysis
Time horizon

4. KINDS OF RESEARCH (1) (Sekaran, 2000 and Johnston, 1986)
Basic/fundamental/pure research:
chiefly to enhance the understanding of certain problems and seek methods of solving them (i.e contribute to knowledge building in a certain area),
similar to
- Disciplinary research
to improve a discipline, such as economics

5. KINDS OF RESEARCH (2) (Sekaran, 2000 and Johnston, 1986)
Applied research:
applying the results of the findings to solve specific problems currently being faced,
similar to,
Subject-Matter:
multidisciplinary research on a subject of interest to a set of decision makers facing a set of practical problems or
Problem-solving:
To solve a specific problem for a specific decision makers

6. Exploratory or Formulative
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY (1) (Selltiz, et al., 2000; Chapter 6 of Sekaran, 2000 )
Types of study, according to the purpose of the study and related to the stage to which knowledge about the research topic has advanced:
Exploratory or Formulative
Descriptive
Analytical
(Hypothesis testing, Explanatory, Validation, Predictive )
Case Study

7. EXPLORATORY (1)
Objectives:
To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it, help formulating a more precise research problem or to develop hypotheses

8. EXPLORATORY (2) Other Objectives:
increasing investigators’ familiarity with the phenomenon to be studied further
clarifying concepts
establishing priorities for further research
(iv) gathering information about practical possibilites for carrying out research in real-life setting

9. a review of the related science and literature experience survey:
EXPLORATORY (3)
Methods:
a review of the related science and literature
experience survey:
a survey of people who had practical experience with the problem studied (individually or focus groups), and
an analysis of ‘insighting-stimulating’ examples

10. A review of the related science and literature The focus:
EXPLORATORY (4)
A review of the related science and literature
The focus:
hypotheses that may serve as leads for further investigation

11. The experience survey:
EXPLORATORY (5)
The experience survey:
a survey of people who had practical experience with the problem studied (individually or focus groups)
Issues:
Selection of respondents
The question of respondents

12. The analysis of ‘insighting-stimulating’ examples
EXPLORATORY (6)
The analysis of ‘insighting-stimulating’ examples
An intensive study of selected selected examples, a fruitful method for stimulating insights and suggesting hypotheses for research

13. Exploratory (7) Example:
A manager, curious to know, work ethic values, employees, certain ethnic groups, different from that of others.
Work ethic values?
Quality of life, what does it mean?

14. DESCRIPTIVE (1) Objective:
to portray and understand accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation, or group or of the variables of interest in a situation
In sum, help to:
understand the characteristics of a group in a given situation,
think systematically about aspects in a given situation,
offer ideas for further probe and research, and
help make certain simple decisions

15. DESCRIPTIVE (2)
Steps:
Formulating the objectives
Designing methods of data collection
Selecting the sample
Collecting and checking the data
Analyzing the results

16. DESCRIPTIVE (3)
Example:
A profile of the clients having loan payment outstanding for six months and more.
Characteristics:
Average age
Sex
Earnings
Type of occupation
Employment status

17. HYPOTHESIS TESTING/ANALYTICAL
Objective:
Test a hypothesis or explain the nature of e.g., relationship between variables and the differences among groups
Develop new theories or use the existing theories to account for observations
Validating and replicating existing research and theory. Using different samples, populations, research methods
Prediction: ascertain the extent to which observations of agree with what the theory specifies.

18. EXAMPLES
Sales, increases, if advertisement doubles?
Is working night shift related to marital status?
Is education associated with the adoption of family planning program?

19. In depth, contextual analysis
CASE STUDY
In depth, contextual analysis

20. TYPE OF INVESTIGATION Causal
To establish a definitive cause and effect relationship
To delineate the cause of one or more problems
E.g., Does smoking cause cancer?
Correlational
To delineate the important variables that are associated with the problems
E.g., Are smoking and cancer related?

21. EXTENT OF RESEARCHER INTERFERENCE WITH THE STUDY
Depend on
whether the study is correlational or causal
the importance of establishing causal relationship beyond any doubt whatever

22. EXTENT OF RESEARCHER INTERFERENCE WITH THE STUDY
Correlational study: in the natural environment, e.g., the study the factors influencing training effectiveness; develop a theoretical framework, collect the relevant data, and analyse them to come up with the findings
Causal study: manipulate certain variables so as to study the effects of such manipulation on the dependent variable of interest (and tightly controll certain other variables, as in a laboratory) – artificial lab setting

23. STUDY SETTING Noncontrived:
‘normal condition’ (minimal interference), such as correlational/field studies
Contrived/Artificial:
causal studies (moderate interference) and
lab experiments (excessive interference)

24. AN EXAMPLE (1)
Correlational study, in some cases is called field study: noncontrived setting with minimal interference
Emotional support in the system and the stress experienced by the nursing staff (say, using a questionnaire)
Collect data on how much emotional support they get and to what extent they experience stress, and
Then correlate the 2 variables.

25. AN EXAMPLE (2)
Causal study, in some cases is called field experiment: noncontrived setting with moderate interference
Having emotional support does indeed cause the nurses to experience less stress
Experiment, 3 wards, before and after ‘treatment’ (emotional support)
Before: measure the stress currently experienced in the 3 wards

26. AN EXAMPLE (3)
Deliberately manipulate the extent of emotional support given to the three groups of nurses, say for a week, say 3 levels: - extensive support; moderate support; no support
After: measure the amount of stress at the end of the period
If the theory is correct, the difference in the stress levels before and after the one-week period should be greatest in the first ward, moderate in the second and nil for in the third

27. AN EXAMPLE (4)
Lab experiment: Excessive interference, a contrived setting
Create an artificial environment, close to laboratory setting
Say, connection between interest rate and savings
Recruits 40 students, business majors in the final year, same age

28. AN EXAMPLE (5)
Split into 4 groups, give them chips that count for $1,000 for spending, saving, or both
Manipulate the interest rates by offerring a 1% interest on savings for group 1; 6% group 2; 8% group 3; and 9% group 4.
Do students who are offerred more interest are inclined to sava more?

29. UNIT OF ANALYSIS (1)
Level of aggregation of the data collected during the subsequent data analyis stage
Individual : e.g. Employees
Dyads : e.g. Husband-wife; supervisor-supervisee, as unit of analysis
Group: e.g. to study group effectiveness
Organization, etc etc etc
Data collection methods, sample size, the variables included in the framework are determined by the level at which data are aggregated for analyis

30. UNIT OF ANALYSIS (2) Examples: Individual:
how many interested in joining the demonstration
Dyad:
what jointly mother and daughter perceive benefits of the program
Group:
Group of production, sales and operation personnells on using the new IT system
Division:
profit of each of divisions (soap, paper, oil, etc)

31. Cross-sectional studies
TIME HORIZON (1)
Cross-sectional studies
Data are gathered just once (at one point in time), perhaps over a period of days or weeks, across unit of observation.
Example:
A number of female students were interviewed in March 2010 regarding the brand of hair shampo used and ethnci background

32. (ii) Longitudinal/Time-Series studies
TIME HORIZON (2)
(ii) Longitudinal/Time-Series studies
To study people or phenomena (unit of observation) at more than one point in time
Prospective /cohort/forward looking study
Retrospective /trohoc/’backward looking’/case history study:

33. Employees’ behavior before and after a change in the top management,
TIME HORIZON (3)
Example:
Employees’ behavior before and after a change in the top management,
to study the effects of the change

34. TIME HORIZON (4) Cause Outcome Prospective: Smokers Non-smokers
Retrospective:
With disease
Without disease

35. (iii) Studies using pooled cross-section and time-series data
TIME HORIZON (5)
(iii) Studies using pooled cross-section and time-series data

36. Exercises 6.1 and 6.2 of Sekaran, 2000