1. Mediterranean Society: The Roman Phase
Chapter 11

2. From Kingdom to Repbulic
Legend of Rome’s founding: Remus and Romulus
c BCE: Indo-Europeans settled peninsula – blended with locals, agri., tribal federations
8th-5th centuries BCE: Etruscans dominated – cities, maritime trade in W. Med.
Decline due to challenges from Gauls and Greeks

3. The Kingdom of Rome Influenced by Etruscans (=some kings)
Rome: paved streets, public buildings, walls, temples
Trade (access and protection - Tiber River)
As Etruscans declined, Rome thrived

4. The Roman Republic
509 BCE: nobles deposed king (Etruscan) -> aristocratic republic centered around forum
Constitution: 2 consuls with civil and military power were executives (elected by assembly of patricians), served 1 yr. terms
-> tension between plebians and patricians -> plebians threatened to secede
Plebians allowed to elect tribunes (2, later 10) to represent their interests (veto and intervention rights)
Over time, plebians gained more rights and role in government

5. The Roman Republic (cont.)
Expansion: two policies
1. Established military colonies in conquered areas
2. Gave tax exemption and local autonomy to the conquered (but, they had to provide soldiers and couldn’t make alliances)
Controlled Italy, but the Med. Would be difficult – Carthage (W) and Hellenistic Empires (E)

6. The Punic Wars
Carthage: former Phoenician colony, N. Africa, lots of trade
BCE: 3 wars
= Econ. And pol. Competition
Romans destroyed city, salted the fields, took slaves, annexed possessions

7. Wars with Hellenistic Empires
Hellenistic empires were weakening
Sent military expeditions to protect Roman interests -> conflict with Antigonids and Seleucids
5 major wars between BCE
=> Rome became most powerful in the Med.

8. From Republic to Empire
Expansion -> wealth and power, but also challenges
Unequal distribution of wealth -> tension and conflict
Administering a huge empire -> strain on constitution -> new gov’t

9. Domestic Problems Land distribution:
Elites had latifundia (huge plantations) that out-competed the small landowners due to slaves and volume
Many mortgaged or sold land and moved to cities
Attempts at reform didn’t work (reformers vs. conservatives)
Military leaders began building private armies -> civil war

10. Domestic Problems (cont.)
87 BCE: Gaius Marius occupied Rome and killed opponents
83 BCE: Sulla seized Rome and killed enemies
Did not address land problems -> urban poverty and protests (supply and demand of grain)

11. The Foundation of Empire
Julius Caesar (reformer)
60s BCE: Built up political reputation (through public entertainment)
50s BCE: conquered Gaul -> popularity
40s BCE: took over Rome, declared himself Dictator for Life
Statecraft:
Centralized military and political functions
Gave land to supporters
Used building projects to create jobs
Roman citizenship to all provinces
But, alienated a lot of elites and was
assassinated in 44 BCE

12. Augustus Octavian ended up being first emperor
Defeated Marc Antony (and Cleopatra) at Actium
Consolidated rule -> strong imperial gov’t
Kept traditional republican forms and included elites in gov’t
But, he controlled all important functions
Reorganized military: standing army with loyal commanders

13. Expansion and Integration
Methods of Integration (statecraft):
Pax Romana: result of econ. and pol. Integration -> lots of trade and communication
Roads: helped with integration – well-engineered (drainage, milestones, post stations)
Roman Law: law code for all (innocent until proven guilty, etc.)

14. Trade and Urbanization
Expansion -> econ. development and social change
Commercial agriculture: latifundia produced for export
Regional specialization -> trade (protected by navy)

15. The City of Rome
Benefitted from taxes, tribute, booty -> statues, pools, fountains, arches, temples, bath houses, stadiums, aqueducts
Concrete
Construction = jobs -> increasing pop. (migrants)
Urban expectations: fresh water, sewage, public baths and gymnasia
Entertainment: circuses (chariot races) and stadiums (gladiators, human vs. animal fights, mock battles), amphitheaters

17. Family and Society
Pater Familias: head of household and primary decision maker (but, women had some say)
Some women even inherited property illegally
New classes emerged: merchants, landowners, construction contractors and became wealthy (huge homes, banquets)
By 1st century BCE: urban poor became a problem – riots, private armies -> “bread and circuses”

18. Religion and Philosophy
Early: polytheistic, household deities
With expansion, added new gods and traditions
Influenced by stoicism (universal moral standards based on nature and reason)
Religions of salvation flourished due to appeal to the masses – also spread by missionaries
Cult of Mithras (military), Cult of Isis (attracted men and women)

19. Judaism in the Empire
Generally tolerated by empire, but forced all to participate in state cults honoring emperor -> but, Jews would only recognize one god
Some Roman Jews rebelled, but failed
Others did not fight: the Essenes
Dead Sea Scrolls, strict moral code, community-reinforcing rituals, baptism

20. Jesus and Early Followers
Born 4 BCE: lots of tension
Charismatic leader, taught devotion to God and love for others and that the kingdom of God was coming -> scared Romans
Early 30s BCE: executed by Romans
After execution, followers claimed resurrection and called him “Christ” (the anoited one)

21. Early Christians
Followers believed: faithful would receive salvation by following the moral code and being devoted to God
Writings (New testament) plus Jewish writings (Old Testament) = bible (holy book)
mid 1st century CE: followers began seeking non-Jewish converts
Paul of Tarsus: appealing preacher,
letter writer, traveled via Roman
road system and sea lanes
Executed in Rome

22. Early Christians (cont.)
For 2 centuries: no central authority – bishops of individual communities over saw priests
-> lots of variation
Because they refused to honor Roman beliefs, persecution
But, numbers still grew
Appeal: lower classes (honor, dignity, and personal freedom for all), women (equality of sexes), and urban populations (sense of purpose and salvation)