1. Chapter 6 The Pax Romana, 31b.c.–a.d. 450

2. Augustus as Imperator Here Augustus, dressed in breastplate and uniform, emphasizes the imperial majesty of Rome and his role as imperator. The figures on his breastplate represent the restoration of peace, one of Augustus’s greatest accomplishments and certainly one that he frequently stressed. Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY

3. The central scene lavishly depicted on the side of a silver cup shows Augustus seated in majesty. In his right hand he holds an orb that represents his position as master of the world. The scroll in his left hand symbolizes his authority as lawgiver. On his right is a group of divinities who support his efforts, on his left a group of barbarians who have submitted to Rome. Boscoreale Cup © Musée du Louvre

4. Following Roman expansion during the republic, Augustus added vast tracts of Europe to the Roman Empire, which the emperor Hadrian later enlarged by assuming control over parts of central Europe, the Near East, and North Africa. Roman Expansion Under the Empire

5. The Emperor Marcus Aurelius This equestrian statue, with the emperor greeting his people, represents both the majesty and the peaceful intentions of this emperor and philosopher— one of the five good emperors. Equestrian statues present an image of idealized masculinity, but most portray their subjects as fierce and warlike, not with a hand raised in peace as Marcus Aurelius’s hand is here. Tibor Bognar/Alamy

6. Roman Britain Though the modern state of Great Britain plays a major role in international affairs, it was a peripheral part of the Roman Empire, a valuable area but nonetheless definitely on the frontier.

7. This splendid building was the site of some of Rome’s bloodiest games. In it thousands of spectators viewed gladiatorial games between men, sometimes women, and animals. Yet it stands as a monument to the Roman sense of beauty and architectural skill. The Coliseum Scala/Art Resource, NY

8. Idealized statue of a Roman soldier. Deutsches Archaeologisches Institut, Rome

9. Though hardly games, the contests were vastly popular among the Romans. Gladiators were usually slaves, but successful ones could gain their freedom. The fighting was hard but fair, and the gladiators shown here look equally matched. Gladiatorial Games Interphoto Press

10. Ground Plan of the Roman Villa at Chedworth From R. Goodburn, The Roman Villa, Chedworth. Reproduced with permission.

11. Archaeological Reconstruction of the Villa Courtesy, Professor Albert Schachter

12. Aerial View of Chedworth Courtesy of West Air Photography

13. A View of the Site Today John Buckler

14. Though standing in stately surroundings, Constantine’s arch is decorated with art plundered from the arches of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius. He robbed them rather than decorate his own with the inferior work of his own day. Arch of Constantine Michael Reed, photographer/ www.mike-reed.com

15. This trefoil building in Asia Minor is probably the remains of a martyrion, or martyrium, a church dedicated to a martyr. Martyrs were people killed for their belief in Jesus’ divinity. There were not as many martyrs as Christians claimed, but the Christians considered them all heroes. This church probably honors a martyr now unidentified. Martyrion at Aphrodisias M. Ali Dogenci, Turkey

16. Provocatio, the right of appeal, was considered a fundamental element of Roman citizenship. Courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum