2. Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY (5th Ed) Learning James A. McCubbin, PhD Clemson University Worth Publishers

3. Learning z Learning yrelatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience

4. Conditioning is the process of learning associations zWe learn by association yOur minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence zAssociative Learning ylearning that two events occur together xa response and its consequences xEnvironmental events and behavioral responses

5. z1) learning is inferred from a change in behavior/performance* 2) learning results in an inferred change in memory 3) learning is the result of experience 4) learning is relatively permanent

6. 2 types of conditioning (learning associations) zClassical Conditioning – explains how certain stimuli can trigger an automatic response zOperant Conditioning – how we acquire new, voluntary actions We will also look at… zObservational learning – how we acquire new behaviors by observing others

7. HTTP://WWW.LEARNER.OR G/SERIES/DISCOVERINGPS YCHOLOGY/08/E08EXPAND.HTML

8. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning zIvan Pavlov yRussian physiologist yNobel Prize in 1904 ystudied digestive secretions on dogs yAccidentally discovered that a neutral stimulus elicited a natural response. Abandoned his original study and focused on how associations are formed.

9. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning zClassical Conditioning can be defined as a type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a reflexive response that was originally evoked by a different stimulus. yorganism comes to associate two stimuli xtone and food ybegins with a reflex (unlearned behavior governed by the nervous system) ya neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that evokes the reflex yneutral stimulus eventually comes to evoke the reflex

10. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning zUnconditioned Stimulus (US) yeffective stimulus that unconditionally- automatically and naturally- triggers a response (food) zUnconditioned Response (UR) yunlearned, naturally occurring automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus xsalivation when food is in the mouth

11. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning zConditioned Stimulus (CS) ypreviously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response zConditioned Response (CR) ylearned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus

12. Bell No Response Food (US) Salivation (UR) BEFORE CONDITIONING Bell (CS) Food (US) Salivation (UR) DURING CONDITIONING: Acquisition Bell (CS ) Salivation (CR) AFTER CONDITIONING CLASSICAL CONDITIONING MODEL

13. Examples… z Tasty appearance of unnatural-looking and pretty odorless foods like Twizzlers, lollipops, and candy canes, owe their attractive, incentivized properties to the process of classical conditioning. z If one had never tasted these foods, or, better yet, were a baby that had never tasted anything like these foods, the objects would probably not look tasty at all. The sight of a candy cane, for example, may just as well be that of a plastic toy. z The same holds true for other incentivized objects, such as the ashtray for the smoker or the bottle for the drinker.

14. More examples… z1. Conditioned Fear & Anxiety - many phobias that people experience are the results of conditioning. zFor Example - "fear of bridges" - fear of bridges can develop from many different sources. For example, while a child rides in a car over a dilapidated bridge, his father makes jokes about the bridge collapsing and all of them falling into the river below. The father finds this funny and so decides to do it whenever they cross the bridge. Years later, the child has grown up and now is afraid to drive over any bridge. In this case, the fear of one bridge generalized to all bridges which now evoke fear. z2. Advertising - modern advertising strategies evolved from John Watson's use of conditioning. The approach is to link an attractive US with a CS (the product being sold) so the consumer will feel positively toward the product just like they do with the US.

15. Factors That Affect Conditioning zTiming is key….5 second is optimal zStimulus Generalization - a response to a specific stimulus becomes associated to other stimuli (similar stimuli) and now occurs to those other similar stimuli. zStimulus Discrimination - learning to respond to one stimulus and not another. Thus, an organisms becomes conditioned to respond to a specific stimulus and not to other stimuli. zExtinction - this is a gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of the CR tendency. Extinction occurs from multiple presentations of CS without the US. zSpontaneous Recovery - sometimes there will be a reappearance of a response that had been extinguished. The recovery can occur after a period of non-exposure to the CS. It is called spontaneous because the response seems to reappear out of nowhere. (extinction is not unlearning)

16. Classical Conditioning Experiment! 1. Each of you will get pixie stick. 2. I will do a series of trials where I say Pavlov and raise my hand. Every time I raise my hand, put a dash of sugar on your tongue 3. Notice when you mouth salivates In this experiment, what was the: a) Unconditioned Stimulus? b) Unconditioned Response? c) Conditioned Stimulus? d) Conditioned Response?

17. Behaviorism zJohn B. Watson yDeveloped behaviorism – the scientific study of behavior. Rejected introspection and the study of the consciousness. yWatson used the conditioned reflex as the model he had been seeking to investigate and explain human behavior

18. zWatson believed that all human behavior is a result of conditioning and learning- past experience and environmental influences. zClaimed that neither talent, personality, or intelligence is inherited. zHe believed human emotions could be thought of as reflexive responses. zFear, rage, and love zEach could be reflexively triggered by a small specific stimuli

19. http://www.apa.org/monitor /2010/01/little-albert.aspx zWatson and grad student Rosalie Rayner used “Little Albert” to demonstrate that classical conditioning could be used to establish a conditioned emotional response. zNeutral Stimulus: The white rat zUnconditioned Stimulus: The loud noiseUnconditioned Stimulus zUnconditioned Response: FearUnconditioned Response zConditioned Stimulus: The white ratConditioned Stimulus zConditioned Response: FearConditioned Response zStimulus generalization also occurred.

20. Classical Conditioning and Drug Responses zCoffee yFeel alertness within a few sips even though it takes 20 minutes for caffeine to take affect y smell, taste of coffee (CS) + caffeine (UCS) = alertness (UCR) ySmell, taste of coffee (CS) = alertness (CR)

21. Placebo Effect (Response) zWhen an individual has psychological and physiological reaction to what is actually a fake drug or treatment zBlood Pressure med. Patients given a placebo in the normal environment in which they receive the real drug had a drop in blood pressure. Did not work of course for those without prior experience.

22. Conditioned Compensatory Response zCC can produce different effects with drugs that disrupt the body’s normal functioning. zExperiments: Dogs were given epinephrine (increases heart rate) while in a stand. The body will compensate and lower the heart rate (compensatory response). After several trials just putting the dogs in the stands would cause them to lower their heart rate, the situational cues produced a conditioned compensatory response.

23. zShepard Siegel focused on drug tolerance and withdrawal symptoms in addictive opiate drugs like heroine and morphine. (read 4 th edition pgs 202- 203) zSituational cues are repeatedly paired with the drug’s effects (UCS), which elicits a compensatory response that is opposite to the drug’s effect (UCR). After several pairings the situational cues become CS. Exposure to the CS will now elicit a conditioned compensatory response (CCR). The heroine user experiences the CCR as withdrawal symptoms paired with a powerful craving for the drug. zWhen heroine is administered in the same environment this leads to drug tolerance because the CCR becomes stronger over time. The user must take more to get the same high. If the drug is taken in an unfamiliar situation the CCR will not be elicited, instead the full effect of the drug will take place which could lead to overdose.

24. zSiegel predicted that drug tolerance will be situational specific. zClassical Conditioning has helped to understand addiction and relapse. Extinction is not unlearning. Presented with the CS after a lengthy time can produce spontaneous recovery. zExplains why people can be successful in rehabilitation centers and then relapse when exposed to drug-related conditioned stimulus.

25. CONTEMPORARY VIEWS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

26. Cognitive Aspects of CC zRobert Rescorla yOne group of rats heard a tone (CS) that was paired 20x with a brief shock (UCS) yAnother group experienced the same number of paired shocks but with 20 additional shocks with no tone xRats in the first group displayed a much stronger fear response z CC depends on the information the CS provides about the UCS. For learning to occur there must be a reliable signal. Information is actively processed. More than associating two stimuli. z

27. Taste aversion Learned association between the taste of a certain food and a feeling of nausea or revulsion; this learning can occur quickly, often with only one pairing; Speed of learning is likely related to survival instincts John Garcia’s rats and saccharine flavored water. Demonstrated taste aversion after pairing with drug that gave the rats gastrointestinal distress. Proved that animals will associate a taste stimulus with internal stimuli (stomach ache) while a painful stimulus like a shock with external stimuli like a light or noise.

28. Evolutionary Aspects of CC · ·Garcia’s results led to biological preparedness – the idea that an organism is innately predisposed to form associations between certain stimuli and responses. May also explain common fears such as dark, heights, and snakes

29. Operant Conditioning zWe learn to associate a response and its consequence

30. Operant Conditioning zOperant Conditioning ytype of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment zLaw of Effect yThorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

31. Operant Conditioning zOperant Behavior ycomplex or voluntary behaviors xpush button, perform complex task yoperates (acts) on environment yproduces consequences zRespondent Behavior yoccurs as an automatic response to stimulus ybehavior learned through classical conditioning

32. Operant Conditioning ·Also called Instrumental Conditioning ·Learning in which an organism’s behavior is followed by a reward or punishment ·Organism learns to perform behavior in order to gain a reward or avoid a punishment ·Works on voluntary behavior rather than involuntary behavior in classical conditioning ·Thorndike's Law of Effect: also known as the principle of reinforcement, states behavior that is reinforced will be repeated while behavior that punished will be suppressed.

33. Elements of Operant Conditioning ·Reinforcer ·A stimulus or event that follows a behavior and makes that desired behavior more likely to occur again. Both positive and negative reinforcement results in strengthening a behavior. ·Punisher ·A stimulus or event that follows a behavior and makes that desired behavior less likely to occur again

34. Operant Conditioning zB.F. Skinner (1904-1990) yelaborated Thorndike’s Law of Effect ydeveloped behavioral technology

35. Operant Conditioning zSkinner Box ysoundproof chamber with a bar or key that an animal presses or pecks to release a food or water reward ycontains a device to record responses

36. Operant Conditioning zReinforcer yany event that strengthens the behavior it follows zShaping yconditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal zSuccessive Approximations yreward behaviors that increasingly resemble desired behavior

37. Principles of Reinforcement zPrimary Reinforcer yinnately reinforcing stimulus ysatisfies a biological need zSecondary Reinforcer yconditioned reinforcer ylearned through association with primary reinforcer

38. Schedules of Reinforcement zContinuous Reinforcement yreinforcing the desired response each time it occurs ylearning occurs rapidly yextinction occurs rapidly zPartial Reinforcement yreinforcing a response only part of the time yresults in slower acquisition ygreater resistance to extinction

39. Schedules of Reinforcement zFixed Ratio (FR) yreinforces a response only after a specified number of responses yfaster you respond the more rewards you get ydifferent ratios yvery high rate of responding ylike piecework pay

40. Schedules of Reinforcement zVariable Ratio (VR) yreinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses yaverage ratios ylike gambling, fishing yvery hard to extinguish because of unpredictability

41. Schedules of Reinforcement zFixed Interval (FI) yreinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed yresponse occurs more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near

42. Schedules of Reinforcement zVariable Interval (VI) yreinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals yproduces slow steady responding ylike pop quiz

44. Types of Reinforcement ·Positive reinforcer (+) · Adds something rewarding following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again ·Example: Giving a dog a treat for fetching a ball is an example ·Negative reinforcer (-) · Removes something unpleasant from the environment following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again ·Example: Putting on your seatbelt to stop the beeping in your car

45. Overview ·CLASSICAL · Learner is passive ·Desired behavior is usually involuntary ·Response generalization does not occur ·OPERANT · Learner is active ·Desired behavior is usually voluntary ·Schedules of Reinforcement

46. Response Acquisition: The building phase of conditioning How do we acquire learning in classical and operant conditioning? ·Classical conditioning: Naturally occurring responses are attached to conditioned stimulus by pairing that stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus ·Spacing of trials effects rate of training ·Operant conditioning: Learning process in which desired responses are followed by reinforcers ·Shaping=reinforcing successive approximations to a target behavior, can speed up acquisition

47. Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery ·Classical conditioning · Extinction: US and CS are no longer paired, eliminating the CR ·Spontaneous recovery occurs when the CR temporarily returns without additional training ·The greater the variety in learning settings, the harder to extinguish (counteracting field-dependency) ·Operant conditioning · Extinction occurs when reinforcement is stopped, eliminating the conditioned behavior ·Spontaneous recovery occurs when behavior temporarily returns without additional training ·Spontaneous Recovery consists of overcoming proactive/retroactive interference

48. Generalization and Discrimination ·Classical conditioning · Stimulus generalization: Organism learns to respond to other similar stimuli Example? ·Stimulus discrimination: Organism learns to respond only to specific stimuli Example? ·Operant conditioning · Response generalization: Stimulus generates similar responses; does not occur in Classical Conditioning Example? ·Response discrimination: Only specific responses are reinforced in the presence of specific stimuli Example?

49. Contingencies in Classical Conditioning ·Research has shown that a CS must provide information about the US in order for conditioning to occur ·This predictive relationship between the CS and US is referred to as a contingency (Think "If-then" statements)

50. Contingencies in Operant Conditioning ·Behaviors can either be continuously reinforced or partially reinforced (intermittent schedule of reinforcement). ·Behaviors that are reinforced intermittently are more resistant to extinction ·Most behavior is reinforced with some type of intermittent schedule

51. Free- Response Question (FRQ) on Learning 1. Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are different learning methods. Their differences lie in: A.the extent to which acquisition leads to a desired behavior B.the type of behavior to which each method applies Their similarities are that they both produce the following basic phenomena A.Acquisition B.Extinction C.Spontaneous recovery D.Generalization E.Discrimination Describe these differences and similarities, giving examples to illustrate your answers.

52. Punishment zPunishment yaversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows ypowerful controller of unwanted behavior

53. Punishment ·Goal of punishment is to decrease the occurrence of a behavior ·Effective punishment: ·Should be swift; occur as soon as possible after the behavior ·Should be sufficient, i.e., strong enough ·Should be certain, occurring every time the behavior does ·Should be consistent

54. Problems with Punishment zPunished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed- behavior returns when punishment is no longer eminent zCauses increased aggression- shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems- Explains why aggressive delinquents and abusive parents come from abusive homes

55. Problems with Punishment zCreates fear that can generalize to desirable behaviors, e.g. fear of school, learned helplessness, depression zDoes not necessarily guide toward desired behavior- reinforcement tells you what to do--punishment tells you what not to do- Combination of punishment and reward can be more effective than punishment alone zPunishment teaches how to avoid it

56. Cognition and Operant Conditioning zCognitive Map ymental representation of the layout of one’s environment yexample- after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it zLatent Learning ylearning that occurs, but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

57. Latent Learning 12345678910111213141516171819202122 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 Average errors Days

58. Observational Learning zObservational Learning ylearning by observing and imitating others zModeling yprocess of observing and imitating behavior zProsocial Behavior ypositive, constructive, helpful behavior yopposite of antisocial behavior