1. Land Use: Forests and Grasslands

2. World Land Use Forests make up 30% of land used by humans
“Other” describes areas to barren for vegetation to grow such as tundra, desert, urban areas, ect
Around 10% of land is protected by refuges, parks, and reserves

3. World Forests Why important? Provide habitats and food for wildlife
Control water runoff
Regulate the climate
Purify the air
Also important because of their scenic and historical values to humans

4. Amount of Forests Left
About 3.8 billion ha (1 ha= 10,000 square meters)
Covers around 29% of earth’s land surface
Closed Canopy: Tree crowns are spread over 20% or more of the ground (80% of total forests)
Open Canopy: Tree crowns are spread less than 20% of the ground (20% of total forests)
UN estimates that this is only about half the amount of forest that originally covered the earth

5. Forest Distribution Boreal=33% of total forests
Temperate deciduous and coniferous=11%
Tropical=48% (5% dry, 43% moist)

6. Forest Distribution

7. Old Growth Forests
Old Growth Forest: Forests free from disturbance long enough to have mature trees, physical conditions, species diversity, and other characteristics of equilibrium ecosystems
In danger due to increase human activity in forests
Less than 50% of forests today retain old growth features
Generally free from human disturbance so that the trees can live out full life cycles without be destroyed.
Rich in biodiversity, has many endanger species, as well as indigenous human cultures
Does not mean humans do not interact at all, it just means that their presence has little impact on the ecosystem
Largest remaining areas of old growth are in Russia, Canada, Brazil, and Oceania

8. Forest Products
Industrial timber has become the major use of wood in the modern word
3.7 billion metric tons sold per year
Fuelwood represents the other half of wood harvested by humans
Supplies the main source of heating and cooking to third world countries
Industrial Timber: Timber used to make lumber, plywood, veneer, particleboard, and chipwood
Industrial timber accounts for about 50% of all wood consumption
Russia, Canada, and the U.S. are the largest producers of industrial timber, while Japan is the larges consumer
Fuelwood: Branches, twigs, logs, woodchips, and other wood products harvested for use as fuel
Fuelwood is running low because of thinning forests and increasing human populations

9. Forest Management
Forest Management involves planning for sustainable harvests, with particular attention paid to forest regeneration
25% of world’s forests are scientifically managed for wood production
Monoculture Forestry
Saves money and labor leading to high profits
Promotes the spread of disease and pest infestations
Most countries replant much less trees than are actually harvested
Monoculture Forestry is maintaining large plantations made up of only a single species
Monoculture Leads to clear-cut harvesting which saves money but causes erosion. I t also does not provide habitats for wildlife

10. Tropical Forests Rich biodiversity
Contains at least ½ of the earth’s plant, animal, and microbial species

11. Tropical Forest Disappearance
Between 1990 and 2000, 9-12 million ha of tropical forest was lost
Tropical forest cover decreases at around 0.8% each year
Most tropical forests are lost in Africa
Fueled by Cattle ranching, fruit plantations, mining, and illegal logging
Africa loses 5.3 million ha per year
South America loses 3.5 million ha per year
Deforestation leads to extinction
Problem is not getting better, deforestation is accelerating in places such as the Congo River Basin (4 million ha per ear) as well as the Amazon River Basin (26,128 km2 in one year)

12. Alternatives Milpa/Swidden Agriculture “Slash and Burn”
Prevents erosion, infestation, and tree loss
Form of Mixed Perennial Polyculture
Milpa- clear small area of land so that sunlight can reach the ground; a few weeks later the dried remains of the fallen trees are burned and the ashes are used as a seedbed; fast growing crops like banana or papaya trees are plants, preventing erosion; root plants like sweet potatoes are planted to keep the soil in place. After about 2 years, the forest overtakes the plot and a new plot is started somewhere else
Mixed Perennial Polyculture: Growing a mixture of different perennial crop species (where the same plant persists for more than one year) together in the same plot

13. Forest Protection
Tropical forest reservations are being set up worldwide
Debt-for-Nature Swaps
People in developed countries can aid the preservation of forests
Hope is to reduce debt and preserve wildlife at the same time
Indonesia has plans to preserve 100,000 km 2 of forest, and Brazil has set up a 350,000 km 2 reservation
Debt-for-Nature Swap: Forgiveness of international debt in exchange for nature protection in developing countries
U.S. government forgave $6.6 million to Peru in exchange for Peru investing $10.6 million in wildlife preserves over the next decade

14. Temperate Forests
Like tropical forests, temperate forests are also facing danger because of deforestation
Temperate rainforests have the most biomass of any other biome
Located in Pacific northwest, 80% of all old-growth forest will be cut down in the near future
Provide habitats for thousands of different species

15. Harvesting Methods
Most popular method in U.S. and Canada is clear-cutting
An alternative to this is Selective Cutting
Clear-cutting: Cutting every tree regardless of its species or size; an appropriate method for some species; can be destructive if not carefully controlled. Can lead to large profit, but wastes small trees and can cause erosion and creates a large loss of habitat to many species
Selective Cutting: Harvesting only mature trees of a certain species and size; more expensive than clear-cutting but is often less disruptive for wildlife and often better for forest regeneration. (used on species like Ponderosa Pines) allows forest to retain many of its qualities, but is slower and less cost effective than clear-cutting.
Coppicing is used to encourage stump sprouts from species such as aspen, oak, beech, or pine.
In seed tree harvesting, some mature trees are left in an area to serve as a seed source for the clear cut patch.
Strip cutting entails harvesting all the trees in a narrow corridor.

16. Fire Management
Many ecosystems are reliant upon periodic fires for regeneration
Trying to prevent fires in the these ecosystems will slow its growth, and will also cause bigger fires by building up debris
U.S. government has stopped trying to fight some fires, and are letting them naturally burn
Salvage Logging
Salvage Logging: Harvesting timber killed by fire, disease, or windthrow

17. Grasslands 2nd to forests in amount used and altered by humans
Grasslands have been reduced by 1/3 since the spread of agriculture
Pasture: enclosed or managed grasslands
Rangeland: unfenced, natural prairie and open woodland

18. Management
Traditional ranchers can avoid overgrazing or overusing the land
Currently, management is allowing overgrazing to occur
Desertification
Traditionalists Do this by carefully monitoring the number of animals and the current conditions of the range
Overgrazing takes away certain plant species and leaves others. This allows the other species and weeds to take over the entire grassland, so the nutritional value of the vegetation becomes less. The feet of the animals grazing also make erosion happen faster. Leads to desertification
Desertification: Cycle that turns a once fertile land into a desert

19. Range Conditions in the U.S.
Most of livestock do not graze on public rangelands
Lack of enforcement on rangelands led to overgrazing
55% of U.S. rangelands are in “poor to very poor” conditions
Only 2% of cattle and 10% of sheep graze on public rangelands
Overgrazing has led to an dramatic increase in inedible vegetation making the rangeland less useable

20. Rotational Grazing
Rotational Grazing simulates the actual nature of wild grazing animals
More healthy for the rangeland
Some U.S. rangelands now require rotational grazing
Rotational Grazing: Confining animals to a small area for a short time before shifting them to a new location. Limits amount of good vegetation consumed, fertilizes the land, leave to new location.

21. Land Ownership
In most countries, most of the land is owned by a small percentage of the people
Has causes political and social unrest in some countries
Land Reform is an attempt to distribute land to a greater amount of people
May improve environmental conditions
Land Reform: Democratic redistribution of landownership to recognize the rights of those whop actually work the land to a fair share of the products of their labor
Owners of very large plots of land often do not actually care about the land itself, but only the profits they can make from it. If the land is more evenly distributed, the owners will care more about the land and take better care of it

22. Indigenous Land Rights
Use 25% of land on earth
Indigenous people often take better care of their land than modern societies do
Indigenous people often have their natural resources taken away by modern societies
Indigenous people’s lives are more directly effected by the environment around them
Taking all the natural resources is dangerous to the people who live off of them and puts the environment at greater risk

23. HALFTIME QUESTIONS!!!!!!!!!!
What is the difference between a pasture and a rangeland?
Name some advantages and disadvantages to selective cutting
Describe the “slash and burn” process
Which countries are the largest producers of industrial timber?
What is fuel wood?
Which continent experiences the most forest lost per year?
What are some important roles that forests play in the environment?
What are some problems with monoculture forestry?
Why is trying to prevent forest fires sometimes harmful to some ecosystems?
BONUS: What is one ha equal to in meters?

24. Chapter 13:Preserving and Restoring Nature

25. History of Parks
In ancient times, parks were for only the rich and powerful
Public Parks were created in the 1800’s
First National Park: Yellowstone National Park
National Parks have now spread all over the world
Served as a retreat for the Han Emperors in china
Public parks such as central park
Yellowstone founded by President Ulysses S. Grant in 1872

26. National Parks
One or more ecosystems that are not altered by human activity
Sites have scientific, educational, and recreational value
Humans can enter only for scientific, educational, and recreational, and must not disturb the nature
Parks are protected by the national government

27. Threats to National Parks
Budget issues
Pollution
Erosion
Power plants
U.S. budget has decreased by 25%
Activities such as snowmobiling, jetskiing, or offroading increase pollution and acid rain
Offroading can cause great amounts of erosion
Power plants create smog

28. Wilderness Areas and Wildlife Refuges
Wilderness: An area of undeveloped land affected primarily by the forces of nature; an area where human are visitors and do not remain
Environmentalists push for more wilderness areas, industrialists want less wilderness
Environmentalists say it provides areas for wildlife refuge, human recreation, and scientific study
Industrialists such as miners, loggers, and ranchers would argue this gets in the way of their industry, causes them to lose money
In most other countries, any land that hasn’t already been settled by modern societies have indigenous people in them.

29. Wildlife Refuges Originally sanctuaries for wildlife
Now 550 National Refuges in U.S.
Now hunting is allowed
Other damaging human activities are also allowed
Wildlife Refuges: Areas set aside to shelter, feed, and protect wildlife; due to political and economic pressures, refuges often allow hunting, trapping, mineral exploitation, and other activities that threaten wildlife
1901- Teddy Roosevelt created the first 51 wildlife refuges
1948- Hunting became legal, hunters must purchase certain stamps that raise money for wetland protection
Oil drilling,

30. Global Nature Preservation
World Conservation Strategy: A proposal for maintaining essential ecological processes, preserving genetic diversity, and ensuring that utilization of species and ecosystems is suitable
4% of earth’s land designated as parks, refuges, and reserves
Europe has highest amount of protected sites
Pacific has least amount of sites
Amount of actual protection in these areas varies
WCS: create a balance so that both nature and humans can benefit
Europe: 43,000 sites (but less area than N.America)
Pacific: 320
Central America has greatest area covered
Some have no staff or reason to protect them, others are very well preserved

31. Marine Preservation
Over harvesting is depleting the oceans or resources
Ecosystems like coral reefs are being destroyed at a rapid rate
Scientists have called for increased amounts of marine refuges
Marine refuges shown to be very effective
Some want 20% of nearshore territory to be devoted to refuges
100 marine refuges worldwide, they have shown that they have 2x the amount of organisms, 3x the bio mass, and fish were 30% larger than outside the reserve.

32. Man and Biosphere Program
Multi-use Area allows sustainable harvest and human settlement,
Buffer zone allows tourism and research facilities
Core area only allows very limited amounts of research facilities
Integration of mankind’s needs with preservation of nature nature

33. Landscape Ecology
Landscape Ecology: The study of the reciprocal effects of spatial pattern on ecological processes. A study in which the landscape history shapes the features of the land and the organisms that inhabit it as well as our reaction to, and interpretation of, the land.
Considers humans an important part of most landscapes

34. Patchiness
Ecosystems often have patches or certain types of biotic and abiotic factors
Patches shift with time
Boundaries of these patches are important
In a forest, there might be a patch of the same type of tree, with similar organisms living around that tree, and similar soil beneath the tree
The boundaries are important because certain boundaries may inhibit certain organisms or minerals to be in a certain area

35. Restoration Ecology
Seeks to repair or reconstruct ecosystems damaged or altered by humans
Different degrees of restoration
Restoration
Rehabilitation
Remediation
Reclamation
Re-creation
Restoration Ecology: Seeks to repair or reconstruct ecosystems damaged by human actions.
Rehabilitation: To rebuilt elements of a structure or function in an ecological system without necessarily achieving complete restoration to its original condition.
Remediation: Cleaning up chemical contaminants from a contaminated area.
Reclamation: Chemical, biological, or physical cleanup and reconstruction of severely contaminated or degraded sites to return them to something like their original topography and vegetation
Re-creation: Construction of an entirely new biological community to replace one that has been destroyed on that or another site.

36. Methods of Restoration
Removing foreign organisms
Planting organisms that original inhabited the area
Bringing back animals that originally inhabited the area
Letting nature heal itself
Alternative to planting: broadcasting seeds. Faster, cheaper, more like natural process
If humans stop interfering with some ecosystems, they will rebuild on their own

37. Preserving Wetlands
1990’s: Laws passed punishing any who drain, fill, or damage wetlands with pollutants
Destruction of wetlands has greatly decreased
2001: Laws were then changed so that only around 20% of wetlands were protected
Wetland Migration: creating new wetlands to make up for those lost
Destruction down 80% from 1980’s-1990’s
Many argue that wetland migration is a bad idea because the wetland ecosystems are too complex to mimic competley

38. Floodplains
Floodplains are Low lands along riverbanks, lakes, and coastlines that are subjected to periodic inundation.
Human have begun developing on floodplains
Has caused disruption in the ecosystem
Settled on floodplain because it is great farming land
Drainage from farms creates more floods
Housing does not allow flood plains to be flooded as often, increasing river deepness and currents, also making future floods worse than they should be

39. Ecosystem Management
Integration of ecological, political, and social goals to try to solve the environmental problems
Goals:
All levels of the environment must be managed
Stop political boundaries
Routine data collection
Adaptive management
Humans in nature
Organizational change
Values
Stop political boundaries: should be managed as a whole ecosystem
Data Collection: ongoing research so that successes and failures can be realized
Adaptive Management: flexible, can adapt method of management since it is a new science
Humans in Nature: humans should not consider themselves different from nature, they are part of it
Organizational Change: Must change ways we do business
Values: despite level of scientific knowledge, humans play dominant role in the ecosystem management goals

40. Works Cited
Cunningham, William P., Mary Ann Cunningham, and Barbara Woodworth Saigo. Environmental Science a Global Concern. 9th ed. New York: McGraw, Print.