1. Studying & Building Memories Memory is learning that has persisted over time, information that has been stored and can be retrieved. Recall: retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time. Recognition: identifying items previously learned. Relearning: learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later time. Konkle et al., 2010: 2500 slides of faces and places for 10 seconds each.(mp312,cp300) Later 280 slides are selected paired with new slides. Participants recognized 90% of the slides they had viewed previously. 2800 slides for 3 seconds each = 82% accuracy. Mitchell, 2006: (mp313 Fig. 23.1, cp300 f8.1)

2. Studying & Building Memories Ebbinghaus Retention Curve, (mp314 Fig. 23.2 cp315 f8.15) Additional rehearsal (aka overlearning) of verbal information increases retention, especially when practice is distributed over time. Fig. 23.3 Atkinson and Shiffrin's three-step model helps us to think about how memories are processed. (mp315 cp301) Modern models include automatic processing, and have also redefined short-term memory as working memory. Baddeley, 2002. Fig. 23. 5: Baddeley's model includes visual and auditory rehearsal of new information. A hypothetical central executive focuses attention and pulls information from long-term memory to help make sense of new information.(mp315 cp 302 f 8.4) This type of memory is called explicit memory-the facts and experiences we can consciously know and declare. They are based on the language centres of the brain. Implicit memory is a result of automatic processing.

3. Studying & Building Memories Implicit memories include procedural memory for automatic skills, and classically conditioned associations among stimuli. Automatic processing includes: space: encoding where the information appeared. time: encoding the sequence of events in which the information appeared. frequency: encoding how many times the same informational event has occurred. Momentary photographic memory: Fig. 23. 6 (mp371 cp303 f8.5) Sperling (1960) flashed a group of letters for one-twentieth of a second; subjects could recall only about half. But, given a signal to recall a particular row immediately after the letters had disappeared, they could do so with near-perfect accuracy.

4. Studying & Building Memories Fig. 23.7: (m p318 cp304 f8.6)Without active processing (including subvocalized rehearsal), short-term memories have a limited life. Cowan et al. 2008: Unlike short-term memory, working-memory capacity appears to reflect intelligence level. (m p304, c p318) Effortful processing strategies: Chunking: Phone numbers. Mnemonics: Video game walkthroughs. For example: two hard-core 'Mass Effect' players don't need a video display to discuss the levels of game play; it's all in their memories. Hierarchies: A top-down approach of a few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrow concepts and facts. Copeda et al., 2006: Spacing effect: Massed practice (cramming) produces speedy short-term learning and confidence, but distributed practice produces long-term recall and measurable competence.(mp 319 c306) Testing effect: Practicing retrieval by answering questions.

5. Studying & Building Memories Fig. 23. 11 (m p321 c p 307 f8.10)Processing a word deeply by its meaning (semantically) produces better recognition at a later time than does shallow processing by attending to its appearance or sound. We are especially good at recalling information that is meaningful to ourselves. Self-reference effect is especially strong in members of individualistic Western cultures. Information deemed 'relevant to me' is processed more deeply and remains more accessible.