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© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 3-2 The Plasma Membrane.
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Glycolipids of glycocalyx Phospholipid bilayer Integral protein with channel Integral glycoproteins Hydrophobic tails Plasma membrane Cholesterol Hydrophilic heads Peripheral proteins Gated channel Cytoskeleton (Microfilaments) = 2 nm CYTOPLASM p. 68 © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 03-04a p. 74 © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 03-04b p. 74 © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 3-5a The Endoplasmic Reticulum.
Ribosomes Cisternae Nucleus a The three-dimensional relationships between the rough and smooth endoplasmic reticula are shown here. p. 75 © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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LE 3-6 p. 76 Secretory vesicles Secretory product Transport vesicles © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
LE 3-7a Endoplasmic reticulum CYTOSOL EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Golgi apparatus Maturing face Plasma membrane Lysosomes Secretory vesicles Forming face Vesicle incorporation in plasma membrane Membrane renewal vesicles Transport vesicle © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 3-7 Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Packaging (Part 1 of 11). p. 78 © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 3-7 Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Packaging (Part 2 of 11). p. 79 © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
LE 3-8-1 Golgi apparatus Damaged organelle Autolysis liberates digestive enzymes 3 1 Secondary lysosome Primary lysosome Reabsorption 2 Reabsorption Secondary lysosome Extracellular solid or fluid Endocytosis p. 80 Exocytosis ejects residue Exocytosis ejects residue © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
LE 3-9 Cytoplasm of cell Inner membrane Cristae Matrix Organic molecules and O2 Outer membrane CO2 ATP Matrix Cristae Enzymes CYTOPLASM Glucose Glycolysis Pyruvic acid ATP CO2 Enzymes and coenzymes of cristae ADP + phosphate O2 TCA Cycle H p. 81 MATRIX MITOCHONDRION © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure The Nucleus Nucleoplasm Chromatin Nucleolus Nuclear envelope Nuclear pore Nucleus TEM 4800 Important nuclear structures are shown here. Nuclear pores Nuclear pore Inner membrane of nuclear envelope Broken edge of outer membrane Perinuclear space Outer membrane of nuclear envelope Nuclear envelope A nuclear pore is a large protein complex that spans the nuclear envelope. Nucleus Freeze fracture SEM 9240 This cell was frozen and then broken apart to make its internal structures visible. The technique, called freeze fracture or freeze-etching, provides a unique perspective on the internal organization of cells. The nuclear envelope and nuclear pores are visible. The fracturing process broke away part of the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope, and the cut edge of the nucleus can be seen. p.82 © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
LE 3-11 Nucleus Telomeres of sister chromatids Centromere Kinetochore Supercoiled region Cell prepared for division Visible chromosome Nondividing cell Chromatin in nucleus DNA double helix p. 83 Nucleosome Histones © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
LE DNA Template strand Coding strand RNA polymerase Promoter Triplet 1 1 1 Gene Triplet 2 Complementary triplets 2 2 3 Triplet 3 3 4 Triplet 4 4 KEY p. 85 Adenine Uracil (RNA) Guanine Thymine (DNA) Cytosine © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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LE Codon 1 RNA nucleotide KEY p. 85 Adenine Uracil (RNA) Guanine Thymine (DNA) Cytosine © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
LE mRNA strand Codon 1 Codon 2 Codon 3 Codon 4 (stop codon) KEY p. 85 Adenine Uracil (RNA) Guanine Thymine (DNA) Cytosine © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure pp. 88 & 89 © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 3-13 The Process of Translation (Part 1 of 5).
DNA NUCLEUS mRNA 1 Binding of Small Ribosomal Subunit First amino acid (methionine) Transfer RNA (tRNA) Anticodon Small ribosomal subunit tRNA binding sites Start codon mRNA strand Translation begins when the mRNA strand binds to a small ribosomal subunit near its P site, one of three adjacent tRNA binding sites. A tRNA then binds to the P site and to the start codon on the mRNA strand. Binding occurs between three nucleotides of the start codon and the three complementary nucleotides in a segment of the tRNA strand known as the anticodon. KEY Adenine p. 88 Guanine Cytosine Uracil © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 3-13 The Process of Translation (Part 2 of 5).
Formation of Functional Ribosome Large ribosomal subunit The small and large ribosomal subunits then interlock around the mRNA strand, forming a functional ribosome. The initiation complex is now complete and protein synthesis can proceed. The tRNA in the P site holds what will become the first amino acid of a peptide chain. The adjacent A site is where an additional tRNA can bind to the mRNA strand. More than 20 kinds of transfer RNA exist, each with a different nucleotide Sequence in the anticodon. Each tRNA carries an amino acid, and there is at least one tRNA anticodon that corresponds to each of the amino acids used in protein synthesis. p. 88 © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 3-13 The Process of Translation (Part 3 of 5).
Formation of Peptide Bond Peptide bond When a complementary tRNA binds to the A site, ribosomal enzymes remove the amino acid from the tRNA at the P site and attach it to the amino acid delivered to the A site by forming a peptide bond. p. 89 © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 3-13 The Process of Translation (Part 4 of 5).
Extension of Polypeptide The ribosome then moves one codon farther along the mRNA strand. The tRNA that was in the P site (anticodon UAC) now enters the E site, from where it is released into the cytoplasm. The released tRNA can now bind another amino acid of the same type and repeat the cycle. p. 89 © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 3-13 The Process of Translation (Part 5 of 5).
Completion of Polypeptide Large ribosomal subunit Completed polypeptide Small ribosomal subunit Stop codon mRNA strand Termination occurs as a protein releasing factor, not a tRNA molecule, recognizes the stop codon. A ribosomal enzyme then breaks the bond between the polypeptide and the tRNA in the P site, releasing the polypeptide. Other ribosomal enzymes separate the ribosomal subunits and free the intact strand of mRNA. p. 89 © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 3-15 Diffusion across the Plasma Membrane.
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Lipid-soluble molecules diffuse through the plasma membrane Plasma membrane Channel protein Small water-soluble molecules and ions diffuse through membrane channels Large molecules that cannot diffuse through lipids cannot cross the plasma membrane unless they are transported by a carrier mechanism CYTOPLASM p. 91 © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 3-17 Osmotic Flow across a Plasma Membrane
Water molecules Solute molecules SEM of normal RBC in an isotonic solution SEM of RBC in a hypotonic solution SEM of crenated RBCs in a hypertonic solution In an isotonic saline solution, no osmotic flow occurs, and these red blood cells appear normal. Immersion in a hypotonic saline solution results in the osmotic flow of water into the cells. The swelling may continue until the plasma membrane ruptures, or lyses. Exposure to a hypertonic solution results in the movement of water out of the cell. The red blood cells shrivel and become crenated. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. p. 94
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© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 3-18 Facilitated Diffusion. EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Glucose molecule attaches to receptor site Change in shape of carrier protein Receptor site Carrier protein Glucose released into cytoplasm CYTOPLASM p. 95 © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 3-19 The Sodium–Potassium Exchange Pump. EXTRACELLULAR FLUID 3 Na+ Sodium– potassium exchange pump ADP 2 K+ ATP p. 96 CYTOPLASM © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 3-20 Secondary Active Transport. EXTRACELLULAR FLUID 2 K+ Glucose Na+ Na+–K+ pump ADP ATP 3 Na+ CYTOPLASM p. 97 © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 3-21 Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis.
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Ligands Ligands binding to receptors 1 2 Endocytosis Exocytosis Ligand receptors 3 7 Coated vesicle 4 Detachment 6 Fusion Primary lysosome 5 Ligands removed Secondary lysosome p. 97 CYTOPLASM © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 3-22 Overview of Membrane Transport (Part 7 of 8).
Endocytosis Endocytosis is the packaging of extracellular materials into a vesicle for transport into the cell. Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis Pinocytosis Phagocytosis In pinocytosis, vesicles form at the plasma membrane and bring fluids and small molecules into the cell. This process is often called “cell drinking.” In phagocytosis, vesicles form at the plasma membrane to bring solid particles into the cell. This process is often called “cell eating.” Extracellular fluid Target molecules Factors Affecting Rate: Presence of pathogens and cellular debris Receptor proteins Pinocytic vesicle forming Vesicle containing target molecules Pinosome Example: Once the vesicle is inside the cytoplasm, water and small molecules enter the cell across the vesicle membrane. Substances Involved: Bacteria, viruses, cellular debris, and other foreign material Example: Cholesterol and iron ions are transported this way. Cytoplasm Pseudopodium extends to surround object Example: Large particles are brought into the cell by cytoplasmic extensions (called pseudopodia) that engulf the particle and pull it into the cell. In receptor- mediated endocytosis, target molecules bind to receptor proteins on the membrane surface, triggering vesicle formation. Cell Cell Factors Affecting Rate: Stimulus and mechanism not understood Factors Affecting Rate: Number of receptors on the plasma membrane and the concentration of target molecules Substances Involved: Extracellular fluid, with dissolved molecules such as nutrients Phagosome Substances Involved: Target molecules called ligands
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LE 3-22b Bacterium Pseudopodium Phagocytosis Phagosome Lysosome Phagosome fuses with a lysosome Secondary lysosome Golgi apparatus Exocytosis © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 3-22 Overview of Membrane Transport (Part 8 of 8).
Exocytosis Material ejected from cell In exocytosis, intracellular vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane to release fluids and/or solids from the cells. Factors Affecting Rate: Stimulus and mechanism incompletely understood Example: Cellular wastes in vesicles are ejected from the cell. Substances Involved: Fluid and cellular wastes; secretory products from some cells Cell
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Figure 3-23 DNA Replication. DNA polymerase Segment 2 DNA nucleotide KEY Segment 1 Adenine DNA polymerase Guanine Cytosine Thymine p. 102 © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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pp. 104-105 © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chromosome with two sister chromatids Centrioles (two pairs) Astral rays and spindle fibers Chromosomal microtubules Metaphase plate Daughter chromosomes Cleavage furrow Daughter cells Early prophase Late prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Cytokinesis Prophase (PR¯ -f z; pro, before) begins when the chromosomes coil so tightly they become visible as single structures under a light microscope. An array of microtubules called spindle fibers extends between the centriole pairs. Smaller microtubules called astral rays radiate into the cytoplasm. O a As a result of DNA replication during the S phase, two copies of each chromosome now exist. Each copy, called a chromatid (KRO-ma-tid), is connected to its duplicate copy at a single point, the centomere (SEN-tr -m r). Kinetochores (ki-N¯-t -korz) are the protein-bound area of the centromere; they attach to spindle fibers forming chromosomal microtubules. Metaphase (MET-a-f z; meta, after) begins as the chromatids move to a narrow central zone called the metaphase plate. Metaphase ends when all the chromatids are aligned in the plane of the metaphase plate. Anaphase (AN-a-f z; ana-, apart) begins when the centromere of each chromatid pair splits and the chromatids separate. The two daughter chromosomes are now pulled toward opposite ends of the cell along the chromosomal microtubules. During telophase (T¯L- -f z; telo-, end), each new cell prepares to return to the interphase state. The nuclear membranes re-form, the nuclei enlarge, and the chromosomes gradually uncoil. This stage marks the end of mitosis. Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm into two daughter cells. Cytokinesis usually begins with the formation of a cleavage furrow and continues throughout telophase. The completion of cytokinesis marks the end of cell division. a a E o a o e E o pp © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
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