1. Chapter 6
Learning

2. Classical conditioning
Learning
relatively durable change in an organism’s behavior due to experience
Ivan Pavlov
Terminology
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
Conditioned Response (CR)
Classical conditioning explains how a neutral stimulus can acquire the capacity to elicit (or draw forth) a response originally elicited by another stimulus.
Ivan Pavlov, a prominent Russian physiologist in the early 1900’s, who did Nobel prize winning research on digestion, discovered (partly by accident) that dogs will salivate in response to the sound of a tone. In doing so, he discovered classical, sometimes called Pavlovian, conditioning.
In classical conditioning, the UCS is a stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response without previous conditioning…Pavlov’s meat powder.
The UCR is an unlearned reaction to a UCS that occurs without previous conditioning…salivating.
The CS is a previously neutral stimulus that has acquired the capacity to elicit a conditioned response...the sound of a tone.
The CR is a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus…salivating to the tone.

9. Classical Conditioning: More Terminology
Trial = pairing of UCS and CS
Acquisition = initial stage in learning
Stimulus contiguity = occurring together in time and space
3 types of Classical Conditioning
Simultaneous conditioning: CS and UCS begin and end together
Short-delayed conditioning: CS begins just before the UCS, end together
Trace conditioning: CS begins and ends before UCS is presented
In classical conditioning research, a trial is a pairing of the UCS and the CS. (How many times have the tone and the meat powder been paired?) Some behaviors are learned after only one trial or pairing, while others take many trials.
Acquisition refers to the initial stage of learning a response…acquiring the response.
Conditioning has been shown to depend on stimulus contiguity; that is, the occurring of stimuli together in time and space.
So when do you sound the tone in a classical conditioning task? What works best? Of the three types of conditioning (simultaneous, short-delayed, and trace), short-delayed conditioning appears to most promote acquisition of a classically conditioned response…ideally the delay should be very brief, about ½ a second.

10. Processes in Classical Conditioning
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Stimulus Generalization
Discrimination
Higher-order conditioning
Extinction occurs when the CS and UCS are no longer paired and the response to the CS is weakened. We know that the response is still there, just not active, because of spontaneous recovery – when an extinguished response reappears after a period of non-pairing.
Generalization occurs when conditioning generalizes to additional stimuli that are similar to the CS; for example, Watson and Rayner’s study with Little Albert, who was conditioned to fear a white rat but later came to be afraid of many white, furry objects.
Discrimination is the opposite of generalization; that is, the response is to a specific stimulus… similar stimuli don’t work.
Higher order conditioning occurs when a CS functions as if it were a UCS to establish new conditioning…condition to respond to a tone with saliva, pair the tone with a light.

13. Behaviorism John B. Watson viewed psychology as objective science
generally agreed-upon consensus today
recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes
not universally accepted by all schools of thought today

14. Watson took a a baby named Albert and conditioned him to be
afraid of white furry objects using Pavlov’s techniques.
DiscPsy Fig5.2a p170
Watson & Raynor with Little Albert

15. DiscPsy Fig5.2b p170

16. Conditional Training: Little Albert
Conditioned fear experiments such as Albert’s experience would never occur today because of the existing ethical standards.

18. Operant Conditioning or Instrumental Learning
Edward L. Thorndike (1913) – the law of effect
B.F. Skinner (1953) – principle of reinforcement
Operant chamber (Skinner Box)
Emission of response
Reinforcement contingencies
Cumulative recorder
Thorndike’s law of effect stated that if a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened.
This law became the cornerstone of Skinner’s theory.
Skinner’s principle of reinforcement holds that organisms tend to repeat those responses that are followed by favorable consequences, or reinforcement.
Skinner defined reinforcement as when an event following a response increases an organism’s tendency to make that response.
Skinner created a prototype experimental procedure, using animals and an operant chamber or “Skinner box.” This is a small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is recorded, while the consequences of the response are systematically controlled. Rats, for example, press a lever.
Because operant responses tend to be voluntary, they are said to be emitted rather than elicited.
Reinforcement contingencies are the circumstances, or rules, that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers.
The cumulative recorder creates a graphic record of responding and reinforcement in a Skinner box as a function of time.

21. Basic Processes in Operant Conditioning
Acquisition
Shaping
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Stimulus Control
Generalization
Discrimination
As in classical conditioning, acquisition refers to the initial stage of learning.
Learning operant responses usually occurs through a gradual process called shaping, which consists of the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response…key in pet tricks.
Extinction in operant conditioning refers to the gradual weakening and disappearance of a response tendency, because the response is no longer followed by a reinforcer…stop giving food when the rat presses the lever…results in a brief surge of responding followed by a gradual decline until it approaches zero.
Stimuli that precede a response can exert considerable influence over operant behavior, basically becoming “signals” that a reinforcer is coming (see Figure 6.17 re: roborats demonstrating stimulus control). Discriminative stimuli are cues that influence operant behavior by indicating the probable consequences of a response (ex. slow down when the highway is wet, ask Mom when she’s in a good mood, etc.).
Discrimination occurs when an organism responds to one stimulus, but not another one similar to it, while generalization occurs when a new stimulus is responded to as if it were the original. (ex. cat runs to the sound of a can-opener which signals food, but not to the sound of the mixer…discrimination…get a new blender, cat runs to it...generalization).

24. Reinforcement: Consequences that Strengthen Responses
Delayed Reinforcement
Longer delay, slower conditioning
Primary Reinforcers
Satisfy biological needs
Secondary Reinforcers
Conditioned reinforcement
Skinner said that reinforcement occurs whenever an outcome strengthens a response…this definition avoids the use of “experience of pleasure,” which is an unobservable feeling.
In operant conditioning, immediate reinforcement produces the fastest conditioning.
Operant theorists distinguish between primary reinforcers, which are events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs, and secondary reinforcers, which are events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers.
Primary reinforcers in humans include food, water, warmth, sex, and maybe affection expressed through hugging and close bodily contact.
Secondary reinforcers in humans include things like money, good grades, attention, flattery, praise, and applause.

25. Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement – faster extinction
Intermittent (partial) reinforcement – greater resistance to extinction
Ratio schedules (number)
Fixed (set)
Variable (random)
Interval schedules (time)
Fixed
Variable
A schedule of reinforcement determines which occurrences of a specific response result in the presentation of a reinforcer.
Continuous reinforcement occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforced (faster acquisition, faster extinction).
Intermittent reinforcement occurs when a designated response is reinforced only some of the time (greater resistance to extinction).
Ratio schedules require the organism to make the designated response a certain number of times to gain each reinforcer. A fixed-ratio schedule entails giving a reinforcer after a fixed number of non-reinforced responses. A variable ratio schedule entails giving a reinforcer after a variable number of non-reinforced responses.
Interval schedules require a time period to pass between the presentation of reinforcers. A fixed-interval schedule entails reinforcing the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed. A variable-interval schedule entails giving the reinforcer for the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed.
More than 50 years of research on these schedules has yielded an enormous amount of information about how organisms respond to different schedules.
Figure 6.19, presented on the next slide, depicts some of what has been discovered.

27. Consequences: Reinforcement and Punishment
Increasing a response:
Positive (+) reinforcement = response followed by rewarding stimulus (Give them something they want, ie a candy bar)
Negative (-) reinforcement = response followed by removal of an aversive stimulus (Take away something that is annoying/bothering/hurting them, ie nagging, seat belt tone)
Escape learning (open umbrella after you’re wet)
Avoidance learning (open umbrella before it rains)
Decreasing a response:
Positive Punishment = presentation of an aversive stimulus (give them something they do not want, ie detention, fine
Negative Punishment = removal of a rewarding stimulus (take away something they want, ie cell phone, car
Responses can be strengthened either by presenting positive reinforcers or by removing negative reinforcers.
Negative reinforcement regulates escape and avoidance learning. In escape learning, an organism learns to perform a behavior that decreases or ends aversive stimulation (turning on the air conditioner). In avoidance learning, an organism learns to prevent or avoid some aversive stimulation (turn on the a/c before it gets too hot).
Punishment occurs when an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response. Punishment is much more than disciplinary procedures…wear a new outfit and friends laugh…punishing. Punishment may involve presentation of an aversive stimulus (spanking) or removal of a rewarding stimulus (taking away TV).
Some of the problems associated with punishment are that it can trigger strong emotional responses (anxiety, anger, resentment, hostility); physical punishment can lead to an increase in aggressive behavior.

28. Punishment

32. Problems with Punishment - (Spanking)
Does not teach or promote alternative, acceptable behavior
May produce undesirable results such as hostility, passivity, fear
Likely to be temporary
May model aggression (Bandura Bobo doll experiment)

34. Biological Predispositions
John Garcia
Conditioned taste aversions
Not all neutral stimuli can become conditioned stimuli.
Internal stimuli—associate better with taste
External stimuli—associate better with pain
Biological preparedness

35. Changes in Our Understanding of Conditioning
Biological Constraints on Conditioning
Instinctive Drift
Conditioned Taste Aversion
Preparedness and Phobias
Cognitive Influences on Conditioning
Signal relations – predicive value based on experience
Response-outcome relations – causal relationship
Cognitive processes play a large role in conditioning
New research has greatly changed the way we think about conditioning, with both biological and cognitive influences having been discovered.
Instinctive drift occurs when an animal’s innate response tendencies interfere with conditioning (the raccoon who would rather rub the coins together than obtain the reinforcer).
Conditioned taste aversions can be readily acquired, after only one trial and when the stimuli are not contiguous (i.e. becoming ill occurs hours after eating a food), suggesting that there is a biological mechanism at work.
Martin Seligman has outlined the fact that some phobias are more easily conditioned than others, suggesting the concept of preparedness…that we are biologically prepared to learn to fear objects or events that have inherent danger.
Signal relations theory (Rescorla) illustrates that the predictive value of a CS is an influential factor governing classical conditioning.
Response-outcome relations - when a response is followed by a desired outcome, it is more easily strengthened if it seems that it caused the outcome (predicts)…you study for an exam and listen to Smash Mouth…you make an A. What is strengthened, studying or listening to Smash Mouth?
Signal relations and response-outcome research suggest that cognitive processes play a larger role in conditioning than once believed.
The evolutionary perspective on learning assumes that an organism’s biological heritage places certain constraints on the learning process (which some theorists see as merely specialized mechanisms designed to solve particular types of adaptive problems for particular species).

36. Signal Relations
Robert Rescorla conducted research around the cognitive element in conditioning
Environmental stimuli serve as signals
SLIDE 8: Signal Relations
1) Robert Rescorla conducted research around the cognitive element in conditioning
The cognitive element in conditioning is especially prominent in research conducted by Robert Rescorla.
2) Environmental stimuli serve as signals
Rescorla claims that environmental stimuli serve as signals
3) Some stimuli are better and more dependable signals than others
And that some stimuli are better, or more dependable, signals than others.
4) Rescorla manipulated signal relations in classical conditioning
Thus, Rescorla manipulated signal relations in classical conditioning.
Some stimuli are better and more dependable signals than others
Rescorla manipulated signal relations in classical conditioning

37. Signal Relations (ii)
CS-UCS relations influence whether a CS is a good signal
A ‘good’ signal is one that follows accurate prediction of the UCS
SLIDE 9: Signal Relations (ii)
1) CS-UCS relations influence whether a CS is a good signal.
That is, CS-UCS relations that influence whether a CS is a good signal.
2) A ‘good’ signal is one that follows accurate prediction of the UCS
A ‘good’ signal is one that follows accurate prediction of the UCS.
3) Example:
Look at the following example.
4) For some rats the CS (tone) and UCS (shock) are paired in 100% of the experimental trials
A tone and shock are paired 20 times for one group of rats. Otherwise, these rats are never shocked. For these rats the CS (tone) and UCS (shock) are paired in 100% of the experimental trials.
Another group of rats also receive 20 pairings of the tone and shock. However, the rats in this group are also exposed to the shock on 20 other trials when the tone does not precede it.
5) For another group the CS and UCS are paired in only 50% of the trials
For this group, the CS and UCS are paired in only 50% of the trials.
Example:
For one group of rats the CS (tone) and UCS (shock) are paired in 100% of the experimental trials
For another group the CS and UCS are paired in only 50% of the trials

38. The predictive value of CS
The two groups of rats have had an equal number of CS-UCS pairings
CS is a better signal or predictor of shock for the 100% CS-UCS group than for the 50% CS-UCS group
SLIDE 10: The predictive value of CS
1) The two groups of rats have had an equal number of CS-UCS pairings
Thus, the two groups of rats have had an equal number of CS-UCS pairings,
2) CS is a better signal or predictor of shock for the 100% CS-UCS group than for the 50% CS-UCS group
But the CS is a better signal or predictor of shock for the 100% CS-UCS group than for the 50% CS-UCS group.
What did Rescorla find when he tested the two groups of rats for conditioned fear?
He found that the CS elicits a much stronger response in the 100% CS-UCS group than in the 50% CS-UCS group.
3) This difference must be due to the greater predictive power of the CS for the 100% group
Given that the two groups have received an equal number of CS-UCS pairings, this difference must be due to the greater predictive power of the CS for the 100% group.
4) The predictive value of a CS is an influential factor governing classical conditioning
Research conducted on signal relations have shown that the predictive value of a CS is an influential factor governing classical conditioning
This difference must be due to the greater predictive power of the CS for the 100% group
The predictive value of a CS is an influential factor governing classical conditioning

39. Response-Outcome Relations and Reinforcement
Response-outcome relations and reinforcement highlight the role of cognitive processes in conditioning
Reinforcement is not automatic when favourable consequences follow a response
SLIDE 11: Response-Outcome Relations and Reinforcement
1) Response-outcome relations and reinforcement highlight the role of cognitive processes in conditioning
Studies of response-outcome relations and reinforcement highlight the role of cognitive processes in conditioning
Imagine that on the night before an important exam you study hard while repeatedly playing your favourite song.
The next morning you get an A on your exam.
Does this result strengthen your tendency to play your favourite song before exams.
Probably not.
You will recognize the logical relation between the response of studying hard and the reinforcement of a good grade, and only the response of studying will be strengthened.
2) Reinforcement is not automatic when favorable consequences follow a response.
Therefore, reinforcement is not automatic when favorable consequences follow a response.
3) Individuals actively reason out the relation between responses and the outcomes that follow.
We actively reason out the relation between responses and the outcomes that follow.
When a response is followed by a desirable outcome, the response is more likely to be strengthened if the person thinks that the response caused the outcome
Individuals actively reason out the relation between responses and the outcomes that follow
The response is more likely to be strengthened if the person thinks that the response caused the outcome

40. Response-Outcome Relations and Reinforcement (ii)
Animals also engage in causal reasoning
They recognise causal relations between responses and outcomes
SLIDE 12: Response-Outcome Relations and Reinforcement (ii)
We might assume that only humans would engage in this causal reasoning
1) Animals also engage in causal reasoning
2) They recognise causal relations between responses and outcomes
However, research suggests that under the right circumstances even pigeons can learn to recognise causal relations between responses and outcomes
3) Identifying the contingencies among environmental events
Contemporary, reformulated models of conditioning view it as a matter of detecting the contingencies among environmental events.
According to these theorists, organisms actively try to figure out what causes what (contingencies) in the world and around them.
4) Stimuli viewed as signals that help animals minimize their aversive experiences and maximize their pleasant experiences
Stimuli viewed as signals that help animals minimize their aversive experiences and maximize their pleasant experiences.
The new, cognitively based theories of conditioning are quite a departure from older mainstream theories that depicted conditioning as a mindless, mechanical process.
Identifying the contingencies among environmental events
Stimuli are viewed as signals that help animals minimize their aversive experiences and maximize their pleasant experiences

41. Observational Learning: Basic Processes
Albert Bandura (1977, 1986)
Observational learning
Vicarious conditioning
4 key processes
attention
retention
reproduction
motivation
acquisition vs. performance
Latent learning
Cognitive maps
Learned helplessness
Albert Bandura outlined the theory of observational learning. In observational learning, vicarious conditioning occurs by an organism watching another organism (a model) be conditioned. Observational learning can occur for both classical and operant conditioning.
In order for observational learning to take place, 4 key processes are at work. First the organism must pay attention to the model, retain the information observed, and be able to reproduce the behavior. Finally, an observed response is unlikely to be reproduced unless the organism is motivated to do so, i.e., they believe there will be a pay off.
Bandura distinguishes between acquisition (having the response in your repertoire) and performance (actually engaging in the behavior). Bandura asserts that reinforcement usually influences already acquired responses, more than the acquisition of new responses.

42. Observational Learning
Mirror Neurons
frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so
may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy

43. 1) paid 10 dollars for every 20 puzzles solved
2) studying for a class that has surprise quizzes
3) ______________________ slot machines are based on this schedule
4) ________________________ trolling for fish in a lake in the summer
5) speed traps on highways
6) _______________________ selling a product door to door
7) getting the clothes out of the dryer once it buzzes
8) going up a staircase to reach a landing with a nice view
9) ______________________ doing 20 pushups to help stay fit

44. 10) _____ playing Bingo
11) ______getting a paycheck at the end of 2 weeks
12) _______drug testing
13) ________a strike in bowling
14) calling your mechanic to see if your car is fixed yet
15) — frequent flyer program where one gets a free flight after a specific number of miles flown

45. 16) _______________________ child screams and cries in store to get what he wants—every so often it works
17) ______________________ child who likes to hear theme music from Jeopardy every night at 7 pm
18) trying to find a parking spot in Metropolis with a meter that works
19) _______________________ wife is watching boxing match with husband- she receives a kiss at the end of every 3-minute round
20) ______________________ waiting for a sunny day to go to the beach