1. Peoples and Civilizations of the Americas

2. I. Classic – Era Culture and Society in Mesoamerica, 600 – 900
No political unification but similar cultural practices/social structures
Olmec - foundation
Hereditary political/religious elites ruled over peasants
Agricultural practices established earlier (irrigation, terraced hillsides, etc.)
Change: reach and power of leaders/elites

3. A. Teotihuacán 600 CE – largest city in Americas
religious architecture reflected astronomy (pyramids to sun, moon, etc.)
Quetzalcoatl – feathered serpent (culture god, originator of agriculture and the arts)
Practiced human sacrifice
Growth of urban populations
Chinampas
Population growth – new housing, importance of pottery and obsidian tools
Elites controlled state bureaucracy, tax collection and commerce – different lifestyle than masses
Did NOT concentrate power in hands of a single ruler, no evidence of an overall ruling dynasty
Ruled by alliances of elite families?
Military protected long distance trade/forced peasants to give surplus to the city
NOT an imperial state controlled by a military elite
750 CE – fall: invaders, conflict within elites…destruction of temples

4. B. The Maya Geography/climate
Never a unified empire – rival Mayan kingdoms led by hereditary rulers
High population centers required advanced agricultural practices
Public architecture (pyramids) – religious/political purposes
Maya cosmology
Rulers – religious/political duties
Torture/sacrifice of captives, Maya military forces sought captives rather than territory
Fasting, ritual, purification happened BEFORE warfare
Role of women among elites
Women healers and shamans, household gardens/economies
Maya calendars: solar, ritual, “long”
Mathematical achievements
Hieroglyphics
800 – 900 CE – major urban centers of the Maya abandoned or destroyed
Fall disputed: epidemic disease, disrupted trade, declining agricultural activity led to conflict

5. II. The Postclassic Period in Mesoamerica, 900 – 1500
Differences between classic and postclassic civilizations: population increase, larger armies, political institutions in control of larger territories
A. The Toltecs
Borrowed from legacy of Teotihuacán 14th century – Aztecs believed that Toltecs the source of all culture in Mesoamerican world (astronomy)
First conquest - state based on military power – extended control from Mexico City to Central America
968 CE – Toltec capital of Tula constructed in grand architecture, temples, décor much more warlike, scenes of human sacrifice
Two kings ruled Toltec state together, division weakened Toltec power led to destruction of Tula, legend among Aztecs:
Topiltzin – king and a priest of the cult of Quetzalcoatl accepted exile in the east – growing Toltec influence among the Maya of Yucatan Peninsula
1175 CE – northern invaders overcame Tula, but Toltec influence strong over later peoples

6. B. The Aztecs Adopted social structures of Toltec
First served more powerful neighbors as surfs/mercenaries, relocated to islands near Lake Texcoco
1325 CE – Twin capitals of Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco
Kinship based organization survived but lost power relative to monarchs/hereditary aristocrats
No absolute power for rulers - aristocrats chose ruler from ruling family
New ruler needed to prove himself through conquest
Social divisions starker – made possible by military expansion
Territorial expansion gave Aztec warrior elite land/peasant labor
Some social mobility
Clan social responsibilities, loss of hunting/fishing grounds
By 1500 CE – HUGE inequalities in wealth/privilege
Aztec kings/aristocrats legitimized authority through elaborate rituals – sacrifice

7. (Aztecs continued…)
Labor projects (dike in Lake Texcoco)
Tribute system – not symbolic, NECESSARY to sustain urban population
Merchants – function and power
Trade –bartered (gold, cloth, etc.) goods from far away
Diverse markets
HUGE urban population – 500,000 between two capitals by 1500
Religious rituals dominated – large number of gods (male/females)
Cult of Huitzilopochtli – war, Sun, need for human sacrifice
Two temples: war and agriculture
Human sacrifice on much greater scale - war captives, criminals, slaves, tribute victims
Religious AND political: enemy and subject states were victims, public sacrifices – deviancy NOT tolerated

8. Northern Peoples
Underlying Principle – connection between maize, irrigation & social structure
Hohokam = Arizona
Mexican influence most obvious
Irrigation system: 1000 C.E
Anasazi
Four corners region
Long term effect of adapting maize, beans & squash
Kivas
Chaco Canyon: Pueblo Bonito township
Social structure
Role of women
Merchants, roads
Connection to Mesoamerican culture
Decline of Chaco Canyon and changes to township location = evidence of warfare over limited arable land

9. Northern Peoples Continued
Mississippian Mound Builders
C.E,
Economically different to Anasazi
Chiefdom tradition; religious & secular purpose
Urbanization a result of agriculture, trade and technological advancement
Common urban plan visible (reflects social structure)
Largest urban centre: Cahokia (St Louis)
20,000 people, rivaling Maya
Influence based on access to rivers
Status reflected in burial sacrifices
Decline seems to be connected to environmental & population pressures rather than war

10. Andean Civilizations
Environment key in development of reliable agricultural technologies & therefore social structure
Chavin – need to connect coast to interior
Technologies required – calendars, terracing, freeze-dried foods, llamas
Organization of human labor vital
Khipus
Collectivized road building, urban construction, drainage, irrigation & production
Ayllu
Mit’a
Role of women in society

11. Moche 600 C.E, Peru Cultural dominacne rather than political
Ritual & economic use of food
Social stratification; mit’a, theocratic (warrior priests)
Use of gold & burial practice
Commoners; labor dues to ayllu & elite
Importance of craft
Decline = earthquake, flooding, drought & erosion challenged the power of theocracy whose power was connected to controlling environment

12. Tiwanaku & Wari Highlands culture paralleling the Moche
Tiwanaku – Bolivia
Intensive irrigation similar to chinampas; reclaimed land & raised fields
Stone masonry extremely high quality – pyramids & reservoirs – labor force
Limited metallurgy
Vast empire (military) pre-cursor to Inca?
Cultural influence east & south into Chile but NOT a metropolis
Wari – Peru
Dependency versus joint capital theories
Larger city with wall & temple
Both Tiwanaku & Wari decline around 1000 C.E – Inca inherit political legacy

13. Inca Vast imperial empire; “land of four corners”
Originally chiefdom based with reciprocal gift giving
1430’s military expansion – Cuzco capital
Unlike most Mesoamerican cultures Inca used state military power rather than tributary systems
Pastoralist – influenced religion & politics – ruler/gods obligation like shepherd to flock
Mit’a foundation for ayllu base – provided labor force & took care of elderly/sick
Imperial administration based on hereditary rulers (ayllu) –avoided rebellion through hostage of people & gods
Royal family descended from Sun; bound by rituals, main ritual connected to warfare & conquest

14. Inca Continued Cuzco urbanization
Building/stone masonry
City laid out in shape of puma
Centre = temples & palaces
Importance of sacrifice & magnificence
Cultural achievement based on earlier Andean civilizations – khipus, weaving, tools
Prosperity rather than technology growth; Machu Picchu
Increasingly elite cut off from lives of commoners, reduced equality & diminished local authority
Decline 1525; civil war after succession feud. Weakened imperial institutions & fueled conquered peoples resentment. Economy & politics undermined just as the Europeans arrived